State of the Environment Reports
 

ISSUES AND TRENDS
FOR MANITOBA'S NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

This chapter provides information on the following 10 topics:

• Air Quality
• Energy and Transportation
• Water Quality
• Water Use
• Fish
• Forests
• Natural Lands and Special Places
• Wildlife
• Municipal Waste Management
• Hazardous Waste Management

The structure of this chapter is based on a modified ecozone format. Where possible, information is provided on an ecozone or regional basis. Otherwise, it is provided for the province as a whole.

An ecozone is an ecosystem where organisms and their physical environment exist as an integrated entity. Canada has 20 major ecozones; 15 terrestrial and five marine. Parts of six terrestrial ecozones lie within Manitoba: Prairie, Boreal Plains, Boreal Shield, Taiga Shield, Hudson Plains and Southern Arctic. (See map, p. 6) . Information on the Prairie ecozone appears in Chapter 2.

A series of indicators provides information on each of the 10 topics in this chapter. Each indicator is described in detail and a trend analysis is presented in a similar format as found in Chapter 2. An indicator summary appears at the end of this chapter.

Some of the information in Chapters 2 and 3 overlap where data could not be broken down to the ecozone level. References to related stories and issues are made, where applicable.

AIR QUALITY

Manitoba generally enjoys excellent air quality which is comparable to or better than that in other Canadian provinces. Air quality concerns in Manitoba tend to be of a localized nature. Some of these problems include the presence of odours, noise and other pollutants. The main sources for these pollutants are industrial and agricultural operations and vehicle emissions.

Indicators in this section provide information on sulphur dioxide emissions in Manitoba, acid rain monitoring and the Winnipeg Air Quality Index.

Sulphur Dioxide Emissions

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a common air pollutant that has long been associated with health and environmental concerns. It is a strong-smelling, colourless gas formed by the smelting of sulphur-bearing ores or by the burning of fuels containing sulphur. It can damage local vegetation and increase the incidence of coughs, asthma, bronchitis, emphysema and nonrespiratory diseases. Sulphur dioxide reacts with water vapour to form sulphuric acid. The resulting acid precipitation can occur long distances from where the sulphur dioxide has been emitted.

Sulphur dioxide emissions are monitored at five locations near the Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co. Limited (HBMS) zinc and copper smelter in Flin Flon. There is also one location near the INCO Limited nickel smelter in Thompson. These two smelters account for over 95% of the human-caused emissions of sulphur dioxide in Manitoba. Both smelters are located within the Boreal Shield ecozone. (see maps, p 83).

Flin Flon

About 9,000 Flin Flon residents live within a five-kilometre radius of the HBMS smelter complex. In 1995 and 1996, sulphur dioxide emissions totaling 162 and 184 kilotonnes, respectively, were associated with this operation.

As well as sulphur dioxide, stack emissions contain a fine particulate (dust) containing heavy metals. (39) HBMS completed environmental improvements to the zinc-processing portion of its Flin Flon smelter in September 1993. Stack emissions of particulate have been reduced by nearly 75% while sulphur dioxide emissions have been lowered by about 30%.

Occasional high levels of sulphur dioxide from the HBMS smelter still occur within the Flin Flon area. HBMS has been implementing measures to reduce these emissions. To a lesser extent, elevated levels of sulphur dioxide occur when stack emissions are trapped near the ground by specific atmospheric conditions called inversions.

Public Warning System in Place

There is a program to warn the community about elevated sulphur dioxide levels. It includes radio announcements and a telephone number to call for information on current conditions. As well, public meetings are held annually to review air quality concerns.

The message warns people with respiratory problems to:

• remain indoors with the windows closed
• use a fan or air conditioner to circulate air
• avoid smoking
• avoid unnecessary physical exertion
• call a physician or the hospital for breathing difficulties.

The provincial maximum acceptable level (MAL) for sulphur dioxide in ambient air is 0.34 ppm, averaged over a one-hour period. The MAL is a target and not a legal standard. In Flin Flon, this level is used to trigger public warnings and to provide a goal for future emissions management. In recent years, about 150 hours have surpassed the MAL across the five local monitoring sites.

With five site locations involved, monitoring of sulphur dioxide at Flin Flon is comprehensive. Ambient levels of particulate matter (including fine particulate PM10) and selected heavy metal concentrations are measured at three of the five locations. (see box story, p. 87, for explanation of particulate measurement).

Thompson

In 1995 and 1996, sulphur dioxide emissions from INCO in Thompson equaled 195 kilotonnes each year. The maximum reading of 0.09 ppm in 1995 was far below the MAL limit. In 1996, the provincial MAL was exceeded four times, with a maximum reading of 1.00 ppm. Unlike Flin Flon, Thompson has experienced few episodes of degraded air quality in recent years.

The INCO smelter, constructed in the 1960s, was built downwind from the community (unlike in Flin Flon where an older smelter is located upwind). INCO's smelter uses more up-to-date technology that emits fewer emissions and enables the company to better control its emissions.

For many years, INCO Limited has practised a voluntary emissions control program to prevent elevated levels from affecting the 15,000 people living in Thompson.

Figure 3.1 SULPHUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS IN MANITOBA

Figure 3.2 FLIN FLON SULPHUR DIOXIDE MONITORING

Figure 3.3 THOMSON SULPHUR DIOXIDE MONITORING

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

Atmospheric emissions in the Boreal Shield have decreased with better control over sulphur dioxide from the metallurgical smelters in Flin Flon and Thompson. Precipitation quality in the Boreal Shield remains at acceptable levels and not within the range usually associated with human-caused acid rain.

Overall, sulphur dioxide emissions in Manitoba decreased from 530 kilotonnes in 1993 to 367 kilotonnes in 1995, increasing slightly to 388 kilotonnes in 1996. The lower emissions from HBMS in Flin Flon were attributed to production reasons, including the unavailability of copper ore for the smelter. Emission levels from INCO in Thompson did not change between 1994 and 1996.

Manitoba Environment projects that total emission levels for the province will continue to be below 450 kilotonnes annually. No major new sources of emissions are expected in Manitoba in the near future.

The reduced SO2 emissions are part of Manitoba's contribution to eastern Canada's acid rain program, which aims to reduce emissions of acid-rain causing pollutants. In 1994, emissions in eastern Canada were capped at 2,300 kilotonnes 40% lower than actual 1980 levels. This was a first step toward reducing wet sulphate deposition in the Boreal Shield. These reductions were needed to protect sensitive aquatic ecosystems.

Northern Smelters Comply with Regulations

Both smelters comply with Manitoba Regulation 165/88R (INCO Limited and Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co., Limited Smelter Complex Regulation). This regulation specifies allowable annual emissions as well as requirements for reporting and monitoring.

Also, HBMS is complying with additional obligations imposed in an order under The Environment Act to control fugitive emissions and improve air quality in Flin Flon. The order requires measurements of air quality, operation of a public warning system and implementation of abatement measures. A senior-level committee representing the company, government and the community has been set up to review environmental issues (including air quality) for the Flin Flon area. HBMS has also set a goal to reduce by 90% from 1995 to the year 2000, the number of incidents where SO2 levels are elevated.

Acidic Precipitation in Manitoba

Acid rain or acidic precipitation is the primary cause of damage to historical and cultural landmarks. Acid precipitation discolours and disfigures stonework. In Canada, acid rain has affected lakes in Ontario and Quebec, as well as structures such as the parliament buildings in Ottawa.

Acid rain is any precipitation with a pH lower than 5.6. Precipitation occurs when water vapour in the atmosphere condenses into liquid or solid particles and falls to the ground.

Sulphur and nitrogen oxide particles can be nuclei for cloud condensation droplets. When many of these coalesce together to form a droplet of precipitation, the droplet has enough of these ions to form weak sulphuric or nitric acid. These droplets would fall as acid rain. Acidity can be deposited by rain, snow, fog or by dry fallout.

In Canada, 46% of the land area is highly sensitive to acidic precipitation. Generally, the sensitive areas are composed of shallow, coarsely textured surface soil and noncarbonate bedrock typical of peat lands and the Precambrian Shield. In Manitoba, 30% of the soils are ranked as highly sensitive, 2% are moderately sensitive, 38% have a low sensitivity rating and the other 30% are unranked organic soils.(27)

Lakes east of Lake Winnipeg are moderately sensitive to the effects of acid precipitation. Soils in this area, and lakes and soils in the northwest corner of the province, are highly sensitive.

Manitoba began monitoring precipitation quality in the Boreal Shield at Island Lake and Norway House in 1980. In 1983, Gillam, Brochet and Pointe du Bois were added to the network. Monitoring at all sites was suspended in early 1988 and then restored in 1991 at Island Lake, Brochet and Pointe du Bois. (see maps). Daily samples were collected at each of these sites until the end of 1996 when the monitoring program was canceled.

Figure 3.4 pH SCALE

Figure 3.5 SENSITIVITY OF SURFACE WATERS TO ACIDIC INPUTS

Figure 3.6 SENSITIVITY OF SOILS TO ACIDIC INPUTS

Figure 3.7 VOLUME-WEIGHTED AVERAGE pH OF PRECIPITATION

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

Brochet is upwind from the metal smelters located in Thompson and Flin Flon. The average annual pH of the precipitation collected there has ranged from 4.74 to 4.98.

Island Lake is downwind of the metal smelters in Flin Flon and Thompson. The average annual pH of precipitation has ranged from 4.42 to 5.09. Trend analysis to the end of 1995 indicated the pH is continuing to rise (becoming less acidic).

Over the past 12 years, pH levels from 4.87 to 5.28 have been recorded at Pointe du Bois. Trend analysis for the period from 1991 to 1995 indicates precipitation pH is becoming less acidic and gradually rising to "normal" levels. The average pH was just under 5.00 for the period from 1991 to 1995.

Each of these sites has experienced acid rain in the past, but precipitation appears to be becoming less acidic. In addition, these areas do not appear to have been affected by acid rain.

UPDATE ON THE NATIONAL ACTION PROGRAM ON CLIMAGE CHANGE

At a December 1996 meeting, Canada's ministers of energy and environment reviewed progress toward the UN goal of stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions in developed nations at 1990 levels by the year 2000. One report estimated that Canadian emissions in 1995 were 9.5% above 1990 levels. This increase was attributed to higher population levels and economic growth, especially in the export sector. The growth increased energy consumption and associated greenhouse gas emissions.

Although improvements in energy efficiency continue, it is projected that emissions will be about 8% above 1990 levels by the year 2000. Current actions are unlikely to meet the stabilization goal.

Government and Industry Programs Aim to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The Voluntary Challenge and Registry is a program that encourages Canadian industry and business to limit their greenhouse gas emissions. By the spring of 1996, approximately 70% of Canadian companies that produce greenhouse gas emissions had signed letters of intent and were developing action plans. (23)

Other related initiatives include:

• Canada's Program of Energy Research and Development (PERD), administered by Natural Resources Canada. Research is under way to develop batteries for electric vehicles, cooling and heating systems with high energy efficiency, and low-emission vehicles.
• International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) which involves the 100 cities worldwide whose combined CO2 output represents 5-10% of the total greenhouse gases. These cities must come up with an action plan to reduce air emissions.

International Update

The goal to stabilize emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases at 1990 levels was set by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. By January 1996, 151 countries including Canada, had ratified the UN agreement.

The current focus is to reach agreements by December 1997 regarding actions to be taken after the year 2000. The international community recognizes that merely stabilizing greenhouse emissions is insufficient to reach the convention objective "to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". Negotiations are proceeding to reduce emissions further in the next century.

Manitoba Update

The latest estimates for Manitoba show that overall emissions (carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide converted to kilotonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents) have increased from 17,500 kilotonnes in 1990 to 18,400 kilotonnes in 1995. These figures represent a 5% increase. Although carbon dioxide emissions remain unchanged over this period, increases in other gases account for the 5% increase. These non-CO2 emissions are primarily from agricultural sources such as livestock, fertilizer use and net releases from soils.

Manitoba's action plan focuses on promoting greater energy efficiency, greater use of renewable energy and the enhancement of carbon sinks. The environmental improvement project at HBMS in Flin Flon has reduced carbon dioxide emissions by about 180 kilotonnes through reduced coal consumption. The recently announced strawboard plant to be built at Elie could reduce carbon dioxide emissions from stubble burning by as much as 230 kilotonnes annually. (see box story, p. 43).

Air Quality Index

The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a system for reporting on air quality in urban areas. It gives the public a general idea about the quality of air in their community. The AQI considers five common pollutants which, at certain levels, can affect human health or the environment. (40)

The hourly index compares individual pollutant levels to provincial air quality standards. The highest level of any of the pollutants becomes the "qualifier" value for the index. Similar indices are used in several provinces.

The hourly AQI was first reported publicly in Winnipeg in the spring of 1995. Release of the index is a joint effort between Manitoba Environment and Environment Canada. The AQI is displayed on Environment Canada's weather channel on Winnipeg cable television and is accessible through the automated phone-in weather information service operated by Environment Canada. When the AQI is not "good", additional information is provided.

Since its public release in 1995, the AQI message has been requested up to 100 times per day. When the AQI message was added to the cable TV display, Manitoba Environment received an average of four to five requests a week for additional information. Over time, the number of calls has dropped, except when air quality deteriorates into the poor range. Then the number of calls increases.

TREND: STEADY

According to the index, Winnipeg air quality has been good for the past 10 years. The slight improvement after 1990 is likely the result of discontinuing the sale of leaded gasoline and the cooler and wetter summers of the early 1990s.

Figure 3.8 AIR QUALITY IN WINNIPEG

None of the measured air pollutants is expected to cause significant problems in the near future. Occasionally, concerns arise because of meteorological conditions that favour smog and pollution. Smog is a product of motor vehicle emissions. The frequency of occurrence would be reduced if residents chose transportation other than individual passenger vehicles.

In 1995, air quality was in the "good" range for 92.8% of the time, in the "fair" range for 6.9% of the time, and in the "poor" range for less than 1% of the time.

In 1996, air quality was in the "good" range for 96.8% of the time. It was in the "fair" range 5.7% of the time. Air quality did not enter the "poor" range in 1996. The "fair" rating mainly occurred in the second quarter of 1996 (216 hours out of a total of 264 hours) with a few occurrences in the third quarter. Air quality in the first and fourth quarters was "good".

In both years, the AQI was influenced by:

• fine particulates (PM10) about 58% of the time
• ground-level ozone (O3) about 32% of the time
• nitrogen dioxide (NO2) about 9.5% of the time
• carbon monoxide (CO) and the soiling index, or coefficient of haze (COH) about 0.5% of the time.

In the past, stubble burning caused air quality problems in Winnipeg. A regulation was enacted in 1993 to control the practice of burning agricultural residues. This resulted in significant improvements in air quality and minimized the impacts of smoke on personal health and safety. In 1995, poor air quality was the result of smoke carried into Winnipeg from forest fires in northwestern Ontario.

Figure 3.9 AIR QUALITY INDEX

Five Pollutants Monitored for Air Quality Index

The Air Quality Index (AQI) considers five common pollutants that, at certain concentrations, affect human health or the environment.

Index Pollutants

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that is slightly heavier than air. Carbon monoxide replaces oxygen in red blood cells and reduces the ability of the body's cells to function. Motor vehicle exhaust accounts for 80% of the emitted carbon monoxide. Other sources include fossil fuel combustion for construction, heating and commercial operations.

Measurement Period: 1-hour and 8-hour running average

Inhalable Particulates (PM10)

Inhalable particulates are fine, suspended particles (with diameters between 0.1 and 10 microns) that can enter the lungs in solid or liquid form. The particles may remain suspended in the air as dust, smoke, fumes, aerosols, soot or mist. Many common industrial processes including combustion, incineration, metal smelting and motor vehicle exhaust are sources of these fine particles. Natural sources include windblown dust, forest fires, ocean spray and volcanic activity. Elevated levels of PM10 (particles 10 microns in diameter or less) can aggravate existing respiratory problems and may result in long-term effects on the lungs.

Measurement Period: 24-hour running average

Soiling Index (COH)

The soiling index or coefficient of haze (COH) is an indication of the soiling or darkening potential of fine particulates in the atmosphere.

Measurement Period: 1-hour and 24-hour running average

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Nitrogen dioxide is a reddish-brown gas with a pungent, irritating odour when its concentration exceeds over 0.10 parts per million (PPM). NO2 exerts its most adverse effects on the lungs and can contribute to a worsening of existing respiratory conditions. NO2 suppresses vegetation growth, causes corrosion, reduces visibility and helps form harmful ground-level ozone. All combustion processes are sources for NO2 including vehicles, power plants, heating systems and incinerators.

Measurement Period: 1-hour running average

Ozone (O3)

Ozone is a pungent, colourless gas and a major component of smog. Unlike other gases, ozone is not emitted directly to the atmosphere. It is produced at ground level when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds emitted by cars and industrial processes react with sunlight. High ozone levels in Manitoba usually occur between the months of May and September because ozone production requires warm temperatures and sunny conditions. Ozone can irritate the eyes and the nasal passages, worsening existing respiratory problems.

Measurement Period: 1-hour running average

ENERGY AND TRANSPORTATION

Canada ranks as the world's sixth largest user of energy. This high level of consumption can be attributed to vast distances, a cold climate, an energy-intensive industrial base, relatively low energy prices and a high standard of living. Canada's proximity to abundant energy resources has kept energy prices lower than in many other industrialized countries. (22)

Within Canada, Manitoba's consumption ranks fifth. The majority of Manitoba's energy needs are met through nonrenewable fossil fuels such as petroleum products, natural gas and coal. About 75% of our total energy needs are met through imports. Hydroelectric power produced in Manitoba accounts for almost all the remaining domestic consumption.

Fossil fuels are a major contributor to greenhouse gases that cause global warming and climatic changes. In Manitoba, about two-thirds of the total human-made emissions are attributable to the use of fossil fuels.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the main greenhouse gas. Canada produces only 2% of the world's CO2, but Canadians are the fourth largest producers of CO2 per capita. Manitoba's energy-related CO2 emissions are about 2.5% of Canada's total emissions, although our population is 3.3% of Canada's total. (58)

Indicators in this section provide details about the types and quantity of energy used by Manitobans. They indicate the effect on the environment in the form of greenhouse gas emissions. Also described are efforts to reduce the use of electrical energy through programs such as Power Smart operated by Manitoba Hydro. Information in this section is provided on a provincial basis.

Energy Consumption by Fuel Type

This indicator provides information on Manitoba's total consumption and per capita consumption of energy by fuel type. Fuel types include electricity, refined petroleum products, NGLs (natural gas liquids that include propane and butane), coal and natural gas.

Figure 3.10 TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION

TREND: TREND UNCLEAR

Refined petroleum products including gasoline, fuel oil, diesel oil and natural gas remain the most popular types of fuel in Manitoba. Electricity follows as the next most popular choice, while smaller amounts of coal and other fuels such as propane and butane are used.

Total energy consumption has increased for all fuel types in the two years since the last SOE report. The use of refined petroleum products and natural gas has increased the most. From 1993 to 1995, consumption of refined petroleum products rose from 88,767 terajoules to 96,422 terajoules. The total consumption of natural gas rose from 93,732 terajoules in 1993 to 97,540 terajoules in 1995.

Per capita energy consumption is also on the rise, increasing from 217.8 gigajoules in 1993 to 228.1 gigajoules in 1995. A gigajoule is equal to one billion joules. (see p. 52 for information on per capita energy consumption).

Record Amount of Hydro Used

As well, Manitoba Hydro reports that, in 1995/96, Manitobans used a record 19.1 billion kilowatt-hours (kW-h) of electricity, primarily because of the extreme weather experienced during that time. The mark eclipsed the previous record of 18.1 billion kW-h set in 1994/95. (52 ) The numbers for electricity used in Figure 3.10 are for the calendar year, which accounts for the difference. (A kilowatt-hour is equal to 3.6 megajoules).

Total energy consumption has increased since 1993 as the economy has grown. For natural gas, however, the increase is due primarily to the pipelines sector which uses natural gas to fuel compressors to move natural gas to other destinations.

Consumption of heating oils, propane, natural gas and electricity is also influenced by weather. The extreme cold in the last few months of 1995 was, no doubt, a significant influence in the amount of energy used. It is too early to determine whether the trend to higher energy use will continue.

More Vehicles Driving Our Roads

Energy use is also closely related to the number of vehicles on the road. Figure 3.11 shows an increase in the number of registered vehicles from 787,069 vehicles in 1993 to 796,272 in 1994. As well, the pace of enhancing the fuel efficiency of new vehicles has slowed because of increasingly higher production costs. Consumer demands for safety, cargo and passenger space, better handling and acceleration have become higher priorities. (21) There is a growing trend toward the purchase of sport utility vehicles, vans, minivans and pickups that use more gasoline.

Figure 3.11 REGISTERED VEHICLES, MANITOBA

Transit vehicles reduce the number of cars on the road, which decreases the level of carbon monoxide and other atmospheric pollutants. Despite this benefit, the Winnipeg Transit System continues to experience declining ridership.

There were 44.4 million paying riders in 1993, 41.6 million in 1994 and 39.9 million in 1995. This trend has been accompanied by an increase in passenger vehicle registration. However, early 1996 ridership figures indicate the rate of decline may be easing.

Energy Consumption by Sector

This indicator provides information on the total consumption of all types of energy refined petroleum products, natural gas, electricity, coal and NGLs used in the residential, commercial, agricultural, pipelines, transportation and industrial sectors. Summary information is also provided on motor vehicle fuel sales and on energy intensity (the amount of energy consumed in the production of goods and services).

Figure 3.12 ENERGY CONSUMPTION

TREND: DECLINE

All sectors of the Manitoba economy have increased their energy use in the past two years. Total energy use has climbed from 245,291 terajoules in 1993 to 258,951 terajoules in 1995. However, from 1986 to 1995, energy consumption per dollar of gross domestic product (GDP) has remained relatively constant at around 12.5 megajoules, expressed in 1986 dollars to account for inflation. A megajoule is equal to one million joules.

The transportation sector accounts for 26.5% of the energy consumed within the Manitoba economy. This percentage includes gasoline and diesel fuel used in public and private transportation, diesel fuel used in railway transportation, and aviation fuel.

On-road transportation, including private motor vehicles, public transport and the trucking industry, accounts for a significant portion of this total. In 1995, on-road transportation accounted for approximately 80% of the total of 68,527 terajoules used in the transportation sector.

The amount of energy used in transportation had dropped during the early 1990s. Figure 3.12 shows that fuel used in transportation has increased by approximately 10% from 1993 to 1995 (from 62,514 terajoules in 1993 to 68,527 terajoules in 1995). Gasoline and diesel fuel account for approximately 80% of the total fuel consumption in the transportation sector in 1995. As well, motor vehicle registrations have continued to increase. (see Fig. 3.11). These factors contribute to higher CO2 emissions. (see related story on climate change, p. 85).

Energy use in the pipeline sector has increased more than other sectors. Although pipeline fuels are consumed in Manitoba, this sector mainly transports natural gas to markets east and south of Manitoba.

Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide (CO Generation

A small group of gases principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour help to regulate the Earth's climate by trapping reflected solar energy as heat. This is the "natural greenhouse effect" in which greenhouse gases act as an insulating blanket, maintaining the Earth's surface 33 degrees C higher than it would be otherwise.

The burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline, diesel fuel, coal, heating oil and natural gas is the major source of human emissions of carbon dioxide. It accounts for 75% of the enhanced greenhouse effect to date. (23)

Figure 3.13 ENERGY-RELATED CO2 GENERATION

TREND: DECLINE

Total energy-related CO2 emissions have increased slightly since 1993 after remaining relatively constant for the past decade. In 1994, total emissions were 11.6 million tonnes and, in 1995, total emissions were 12.4 million tonnes. This represents a rate of about 11 tonnes of CO2 emissions per person. A typical family car emits five tonnes of CO2 a year. (58 )

WINNIPEG TRANSIT'S PARK AND RIDE PROGRAM

The pilot "Park and Ride Program" (PRP) introduced by Winnipeg Transit in September 1994 has shown encouraging results. By September 1996, there were six Park and Ride facilities in the north, east, southwest and southeast ends of Winnipeg. On average, 68 motorists used the facilities on a daily basis and 200 parking permits had been distributed as of August 1996.

Park and Ride facilities combine the convenience of the automobile with the efficiency of high-capacity transit service. Commuters using the PRP avoid the traffic congestion and high parking costs within the central business district. Benefits of the program include reduced energy consumption, vehicle emissions and traffic congestion especially during peak travel times. Shopping centre owners who participate in the program benefit from the patronage of Park and Ride users. The City benefits by offering a new service to the public without incurring the costs of parking lot maintenance and snow clearing. Winnipeg Transit may expand the number of sites under this program.

PLANNING FUTURE TRANSPORTATION PROJECTS

Today, given fiscal restraint and heightened concern for the environment, there is a compelling need to provide environmentally sustainable transportation services. This has required a change in the planning and financing of transportation projects. All levels of government are rethinking their approach to investment planning to take into account the full range of socioeconomic costs and benefits associated with a project.

Manitoba Highways and Transportation is adopting an integrated planning framework which focuses on optimizing the achievement of societal goals with limited financial resources. The planning process will define infrastructure investment strategies for strengthening the sustainability of the transportation system. The planning framework will integrate and consider the need for investments in provincial, regional and municipal roads as components of the overall transportation system. The planning results, together with stakeholder consultations will serve to guide infrastructure investments toward optimizing societal benefits.

Least Life Cycle Costing for Infrastructure Renewal

Manitoba Highways and Transportation is also pursuing "least life cycle costing" as a component of integrated planning. Least life cycle cost refers to the lowest cost for construction, maintenance and rehabilitation that may be incurred over the lifetime of a roadway or facility.

Different types of construction and maintenance activities yield different costs over time. For instance, preventive maintenance precludes the need for costly restorative work later. While potentially costing more up-front, preventive expenditures over the life of the infrastructure may be substantially less.

Adoption of least life cycle costing requires a level of annual funding that reflects actual infrastructure needs. A substantial part of our existing infrastructure problems stem from deferring maintenance because of budget shortfalls. Continuing failure to preserve the existing network will lead to an infrastructure deficit. It will impair the ability of future generations to provide a sustainable transportation network.

ALTERNATIVE FINANCING FOR SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION

The present method of financing infrastructure from scarce government resources impedes the implementation of least life cycle costing. In recognition of this, the department is exploring innovative methods of financing transportation infrastructure.

Vehicle operating costs are influenced by travel speed, road design, surface condition and ease of traffic flow. Allowing our aging infrastructure to deteriorate at an accelerated pace will create more environmental stress. Poor surface conditions result in higher vehicle maintenance and repair costs, increased travel time and greater fuel consumption. These increased user costs translate into greater costs to society in the form of increased vehicle emissions and resource consumption.

POWER SMART SAVINGS AND TARGETS ACHIEVED

Through Power Smart, Manitoba Hydro customers are encouraged to buy energy-efficient electrical products that use less energy and provide long-term savings on energy bills.

Power Smart also enables Manitoba Hydro to defer the costs of constructing new power plants and transmission lines. As well, surplus electricity is sold to utilities in other provinces and the United States, providing income for the corporation.

Manitoba Hydro set a target to reduce electricity demand by 257 megawatts and 922 gigawatt-hours by 2011. This is equivalent to the combined capabilities of the Seven Sisters and Great Falls generating stations on the Winnipeg River.

Trend: STEADY

Power Smart achieved its targets in 1994 and 1995. (see Figs. 3.14 and 3.15). In 1994, megawatt savings were 65, up significantly from the target of 18. In 1995, savings were 76 megawatts exactly on target.

Gigawatt-hour savings in 1994 were 114, up from the target of 86. In 1995, they were 150, compared to the target of 138.

In 1995, 17 programs were targeted for delivery to residential, commercial and industrial customers. Five of the programs were new, with a focus on encouraging customers to:

• buy energy-efficient models when replacing appliances (residential)
• buy energy-efficient livestock waterers (commercial)
• install parking lot controllers (commercial)
• install energy-efficient windows (commercial)
• improve air barrier systems (commercial). (53)
  

Figure 3.14 CUMULATIVE MEGAWATT SAVINGS TARGETS AND SAVINGS ACHIEVED

Figure 3.15 CUMULATIVE GIGAWATT-HOUR SAVINGS TARGETS AND SAVINGS ACHIEVED

NEW TECHNIQUES TO PRESERVE ROAD SURFACES

Manitoba Highways and Transportation is experimenting with a new road resurfacing technique known as "crack and seat" to extend the life expectancy of pavement. The process reduces the reflective cracking experienced on asphalt overlays of concrete pavements. Reflective cracks appear in the new surface over cracks in the concrete pavement. These cracks must be sealed because the infiltration of surface water will cause deterioration and higher maintenance costs.

The new process involves making very fine transverse cracks along the existing concrete pavement, packing it with a heavy roller and applying a bituminous overlay. A section of Provincial Trunk Highway 14 will be resurfaced in 1996 using the "crack and seat" technique.

The polluting effects of using salt and other chemicals to de-ice roads remain an area of environmental concern. "Pre-wetting" is a new technique that involves adding a liquid chemical de-icer to the salt and sand mix as it leaves the spreader truck. Research has shown that increased retention of the dampened material reduces the need for de-icing material by 30%. The de-icer also acts as a catalyst, providing heat and moisture to dissolve the salt and speed thawing.

In 1996, the City of Winnipeg outfitted 25% of its spreader fleet with pre-wetting equipment. The pre-wetting technology will be monitored closely during the 1996/97 winter to test its effectiveness. Also, Manitoba Highways and Transportation has introduced pre-wetting equipment to some of its spreader fleet and is monitoring the results. It is anticipated that pre-wetting will become a standard practice in snow and ice control.

ACCESS TO TRANSPORTATION IN NORTHERN MANITOBA

A provincial transportation system that is accessible to all citizens, including those with disabilities, is a commitment that makes economic, moral and social sense. This commitment is particularly relevant to the 30,000 people who live in relatively isolated communities in northern Manitoba. The barriers of population, geography and climate confronting northern residents increase their dependency upon efficient transportation systems.

All-weather and Winter Roads

Northern Manitoba has a sparse all-weather road system, a single main rail line and a couple of branch lines to mining communities. The mining communities and some First Nation communities are served by air, road and rail. However, a large number of First Nation communities lack year-round, all-weather surface access. Winter roads provide temporary surface access, but these communities rely on air services for freight and passenger traffic most of the year.

Marine Ferry Services

To supply year-round communications and freight links to certain isolated communities, winter roads are complemented by marine operations. Ferries offer an alternative method of shipping bulk goods to remote areas with less environmental impact than roads. Use of the Province's six operating vessels continues to rise with 193,784 passengers and 77,178 vehicles transported during the 1995/96 fiscal year an increase of about 5% from the previous year.

To minimize the environmental impacts of its marine service, Manitoba Highways and Transportation ensures vessels are well maintained and do not leak fuel or waste into the environment. Biodegradable materials are used in place of oil-based products on ferry slipways. Also, vessels are coated with long-lasting, underwater protective coatings to extend the intervals between sandblasting and repainting.

Transportation by Air

Aircraft play a vital role in linking northern communities with the rest of the province. The 22 provincial airstrips operated by Manitoba Highways and Transportation continue to accommodate an average of 171,000 passengers and 8,000 tonnes of freight annually.

Rail Transportation and the Port of Churchill

The rail network north of The Pas and the Port of Churchill are vital to the northern Manitoba economy. Industries such as mining, forestry, tourism and agriculture rely heavily on rail transportation. Although this transport system has existed under a cloud of uncertainty over the past few years, recent events indicate that the network will be maintained and enhanced for the benefit of the northern communities.

Canadian National (CN), as the owner of the line, recently selected OmniTRAX, an American shortline railroad company as the company with which it will negotiate to take over the network. OmniTRAX has indicated its intention to run the line in a commercially viable manner. As well, Transport Canada is in negotiation with the company and other northern stakeholders to transfer control of the Port of Churchill into local hands, helping to ensure the port's survival and growth. Retaining the rail line will also benefit major new initiatives like the Akjuit Spaceport facility and the new Wapusk National Park that are located in the vicinity of Churchill.

Maintaining the northern rail network has positive environmental implications. Rail has been proven to be the most environmentally sound mode of transport in terms of fuel emissions and fuel efficiency on a tonne per kilometre basis. From a land use perspective, rail is much more environmentally sound than that of road transport. Road transport, more so than rail, consumes more resources, disrupts more land and generates more waste. In terms of transporting goods potentially dangerous to the environment, rail has been found to have an accident rate almost half that of trucking on a per million tonne basis. (77) The continued existence of the northern rail network is beneficial both to the northern communities and the province as a whole.

The trend toward rail line rationalization by CN and Canadian Pacific (CP) continues. Besides the Churchill line, 10 other rail lines, totaling 1,185 km. of track within Manitoba, are being examined for possible closure. Before this can happen, both companies are legally required to advertise some of the lines for sale and conveyance by suitable shortline operators. If the lines are not sold, their closure will place further stress on both the adjacent provincial and municipal highway infrastructures and the surrounding environment.

WATER QUALITY

The quality of Manitoba's water is a growing public issue and previous State of the Environment Reports for Manitoba have identified many water quality concerns. As development expands and technologies advance, so too does the potential for pollution of our water resources.

Despite Manitoba's good record of water quality management, there are regions where quality is deteriorating or threatened. Even in areas with sufficient water, the quality can vary which affects its use and value as a resource. (76)

Typically, water quality is assessed by measuring a large number of variables including:

• various types of bacteria (e.g., Escherichia coli)
• plant nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus)
• major ions (e.g., sodium and chloride)
• trace elements (e.g., arsenic and zinc)
• industrial organic chemicals
• agricultural pesticides.

About 70 variables are analysed in most samples collected during routine water quality monitoring in Manitoba. All variables need to be examined individually:

• to compare with water quality guidelines established by the province
• to assess changes between upstream and downstream locations
• to identify changes that may be occurring over time
• to develop focused maintenance, protection or enhancement programs.

Developing a Water Quality Index

Describing water quality conditions in simple terms is difficult because of the complexity associated with so many variables. Some jurisdictions have attempted to develop water quality indices to overcome this problem, but none has been successful until recently. Many indices oversimplified water quality conditions or failed to incorporate key elements.

However, in 1995, the British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks developed a Water Quality Index that shows great promise for use in other Canadian jurisdictions. This index has been adapted for use in Manitoba. The index may undergo modifications in the future as all Canadian jurisdictions work to reach consensus on a single national Water Quality Index.

This index mathematically incorporates information on water quality from three factors:

• the number of water quality variables for which objectives or guidelines are not met
• the percentage of time they are not met
• the magnitude of exceedances.

The basic premise of the index is that water quality is excellent when all guidelines or objectives are met virtually all of the time. With each failure to meet an objective, water quality becomes progressively poorer.

The resulting index should be useful for tracking water quality changes. Also, it conveys complex scientific information in terms that are easily understood. (see Fig. 3.16 ).

Figure 3.16 CATEGORIES OF WATER QUALITY, DESCRIPTION OF RANKS AND ASSOCIATED INDEX RANGES

Water Quality Index

Twenty-five variables were selected for use in Manitoba's Water Quality Index (see Fig. 3.17) . Water quality objectives or guidelines have been set for these variables that include bacteria, dissolved minerals, suspended sediments, plant nutrients related to eutrophication, toxic materials, trace metals and agricultural chemicals. National water quality guidelines and Manitoba-specific water quality objectives were used to calculate the index. (81) (86)

Most data were generated by Manitoba Environment and Environment Canada. Index ranks are listed in Figures 3.18 to 3.21 and are plotted in graphs which can be found in the Appendices, beginning on p. 156.

Not all variables were measured in all ecozones. For example, some materials such as agricultural pesticides, commonly used in southern Manitoba, are not measured routinely in northern ecozones. Differences in the number of variables measured among ecozones do not affect the Water Quality Index. However, index ratings may appear to vary more from year to year when fewer water quality variables are used and when fewer samples are collected.

Figure 3.17 WATER QUALITY VARIABLES

Water quality data were used from sampling sites located within the five major ecozones. Information is presented for the Boreal Shield, Boreal Plains, Taiga Shield and Hudson Plains. Information on water quality in the Prairie ecozone is presented in Chapter 2. (see p. 29).

Figure 3.18 WATER QUALITY INDEX RANKS

BOREAL SHIELD ECOZONE

TREND: STEADY

Overall, the Boreal Shield ecozone has "good" water quality. Trends over the five-year period vary depending upon the location.

In the north, the WQI remains relatively uniform over five years for the water flowing from South Indian Lake to Split Lake. The WQI remains around the boundary between a "fair" and "good" rating. The WQI of the Churchill River at Granville Lake shows a steady improvement. As the concentrations of iron, copper and cadmium decrease, the WQI improves from a "fair" to an "excellent" rating.

The WQI for the Nelson River from Lake Winnipeg to Split Lake is generally "good", but it is more variable from year to year than in other parts of the ecozone. These variations do result in individual ratings of "fair" or "excellent" that are likely related to variations in flows that fluctuate from year to year.

In the south, the WQI declines steadily over the five years from an "excellent" to a "good" rating. This is caused by aluminum concentrations (unavailable in 1991 and 1992, but included in the last three years) that exceeded the water quality guidelines each year. Assuming similar aluminum concentrations in 1991 and 1992, the WQI trend in the southern part of the ecozone has a relatively stable "good" rating for the five-year period.

URBAN RIVER STEWARDSHIP

In 1995, Manitoba Environment, The International Coalition for Stewardship in the Red River Basin and the City of Winnipeg Parks and Recreation Department jointly hosted a series of Urban River Stewardship Workshops in Winnipeg. The goals of these workshops were:

• to provide a forum for community-based groups
• to enhance communications between the river groups
• to enable residents of Winnipeg to learn more about their urban streams
• to enable environmental specialists to present information on relevant issues
• to provide technical information to summer students employed by the community river groups.

Restoration activities and water quality issues were discussed at three separate workshops held near the La Salle and Seine Rivers and Omand's Creek. Due to a positive response from participants, one or two workshops will likely be held each year.

Figure 3.19 WATER QUALITY INDEX RANKS

BOREAL PLAINS ECOZONE

TREND: DECLINE

Overall, the Boreal Plains ecozone has "fair" water quality. Trends over the five-year period vary depending upon the region within the ecozone.

In the north, the WQI for the Saskatchewan River is uniformly "fair". The impact of the control structure at Cedar Lake has been to improve the WQI to "excellent". However, there are indications that aluminum concentrations are increasing in the water flowing into the north basin of Lake Winnipeg, lowering the rating to "good".

TAIGA SHIELD ECOZONE

TREND: STEADY

Overall, the WQI for the Taiga Shield ecozone is "fair" and remained relatively constant over the five years. Fluctuations in the WQI in the Seal River are the result of individual exceedances of only a few variables. A slightly increasing WQI in the Cochrane River is due, in part, to higher maximum concentrations for lead, cadmium and copper in the last three years.

Figure 3.20 WATER QUALITY INDEX RANKS

In the west and southwest, the WQI is rated as "fair", but there are signs of increasing concentrations of total suspended solids and total phosphorus. They exceed water quality guidelines periodically. Also, those variables that consistently exceed objectives appear to be increasing in magnitude.

In the south, waters draining into the south basin of Lake Winnipeg have a "fair" WQI rating. The WQI is quite stable. However, in 1995, an improvement is noted because of a drop in the number and frequency of variables exceeding the guidelines. Improvements noticed were for oxygen levels, fecal coliform and total suspended solids.

Figure 3.21 WATER QUALITY INDEX RANKS

HUDSON PLAINS ECOZONE

TREND: INSUFFICIENT DATA

It is difficult to determine a clear trend for the WQI in the Hudson Plains ecozone because of the small amount of data available. In general, the WQI changes from a "good" rating to a "fair" rating because of exceedances of trace metals.

Aquatic Insects as Indicators of Ecosystem Health

Aquatic insects and invertebrates can be used as indicators of the biological health of Manitoba's lakes and streams. The diversity of aquatic invertebrate species and the density of organisms at any given site reflect the existing environmental conditions.

Aquatic insects include midges and biting flies, as well as insects such as dragonflies and damselflies, mayflies, stoneflies, caddisflies, beetles and bugs. With the exception of aquatic beetles and bugs, most aquatic insects tend to spend their life in the water as nymphs, larvae and pupae. They emerge from the water as adults. Aquatic invertebrates also include crayfish, freshwater shrimp, clams, snails, leeches, aquatic earthworms, aquatic round worms and fresh water sponges.

The density and diversity of aquatic invertebrates at a particular site reflect a number of factors. Natural phenomena that affect the colonization of organisms include:

• the river or lake bottom materials such as mud, sand, gravel or rock on which and in which they live
• the speed of the current
• conditions such as periodic flooding and drought
• depth of winter frost.

Human Activities Affect Aquatic Life

Some of these natural phenomenon are affected by human activities such as the construction of dams, modification of drainage patterns and other water projects. Other types of activities also affect the aquatic environment. These
include the release of treated sewage and industrial effluents, use of agricultural chemicals, addition of livestock wastes, cultivation of riparian zones or shorelines, and forestry activities.

While most of these activities have harmful effects, some human activities may enhance habitat. Efforts to create buffer zones around water bodies, re-establish shrub growth along shorelines, and create artificial riffles and pools in streams can enhance habitat diversity. This, in turn, enhances the diversity of aquatic organisms.

Developing a Biological Integrity Index

Manitoba Environment is creating an index for supplementing environmental information gleaned from long-term water quality monitoring. Biological integrity indices will be provided, where possible, for at least one site on each river or stream where long-term monitoring occurs. The number of species, groups and the overall density of aquatic invertebrates will be assessed.

The first aquatic invertebrate sampling occurred in the fall of 1995. A second sampling was completed in the fall of 1996. Each sample was collected by sweeping a square metre of stream bottom. Five samples were collected at each of the 25 sites.

Once the organisms that were collected in 1996 are identified, comparisons can be made from one year to the next. However, several years' worth of data will have to be gathered before trends can be observed.

WATER USE

While Manitoba has an abundance of fresh water, good quality water is not always available where and when it is needed and in the amounts required. In some areas, water use is approaching the rate of supply and, in other areas, water shortages already exist. (76)

Almost half of all water consumed in Canada is used in the home. (24 ) Consumption rates, both at work and at home, are very high. In Europe and Australia, water conservation in industry is essential to operating competitively. Environment Canada reports that water in Sweden costs over twice as much and in Australia over four times as much as in Canada. (20)

Municipal water supply systems in Manitoba are regulated under The Public Health Act and compared with the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. The regulations are under review and consultation is under way with industry as well as the public.

Public water supplies are sampled routinely for a variety of substances including bacteria, metals and some pesticides. Although varying levels of treatment are applied at water treatment plants in Manitoba, all public water supplies are chlorinated.

Indicators in this section provide information on total municipal water use and per capita water use. Information is presented on a provincial basis. Data presented in this section are for April 1, 1995 to March 31, 1996. Information was gathered from 152 of the 300 water utilities in Manitoba, which represent a total of 829,982 people or 76% of the population based on the 1991 census. Additional information on water use in 1991 is also provided. This information contains estimates of water used in various sectors.

Data cannot be obtained from small communities that do not meter their water or private homes served by individual water supplies.

CRYPTOSPORIDIUM IN WATER SUPPLIES

Cryptosporidium parvum, also known as Crypto, is a very small organism that is found as a hard-shelled oocyst (or shell) in the environment. The oocyst contains very small, worm-like parasites. When swallowed, the oocyst releases the parasites into the digestive tract. The parasites invade the cells lining the intestines and cause an illness called cryptosporidiosis.

During 1995 and 1996, several national stories on waterborne cryptosporidium drew attention to Manitoba's public water supplies and raised questions about their vulnerability to this organism. Communities using surface water for drinking water face varying degrees of vulnerability to an outbreak. Well and spring water sources are less likely to be contaminated by Crypto than river or lake water, since groundwater is filtered naturally through soil that removes most of the bacteria present.

Manitoba Health, Manitoba Environment and the City of Winnipeg have established a public awareness campaign. Information is being provided to all physicians in Manitoba, the public health system and those target groups most susceptible to cryptosporidiosis: HIV/AIDS patients, transplant patients and cancer treatment facilities. As well, this information has been provided to all owners and operators of water utilities. (48)

Low Risk of Infection

Current methods for treating drinking water do not always remove this hardy parasite. However, Manitoba Health and the City of Winnipeg advise that the risk of getting Crypto from municipally-treated drinking water in Manitoba is low. Boiling municipally-supplied drinking water is not considered necessary unless advised by the water utility or a doctor. (see related articles on blue-green algae, p. 31 and Giardia, p. 57).

DAILY MUNICIPAL WATER USE

Daily municipal water use includes all water uses from municipal water systems for residential, commercial and industrial purposes. Public water systems serve about 300 communities in Manitoba. Approximately 46.5% of Manitoba's municipal water facilities use surface water as a source, while the remaining 53.5% use groundwater sources.

Traditionally, Manitoba handled growing water demands through a supply management approach. Additional water supplies were developed by provincial or federal governments to meet the demands. Government grants supported large portions of municipal infrastructure costs. As a result, water users received few signals on the true cost of water and had little incentive to conserve water.

However, resource scarcities (shortages of both water and government money) have created the need to include demand management in the range of available options. The primary demand management technique is water pricing; that is, applying water use charges that reflect the true cost of supplying water and treating effluent. Water pricing also includes implementing rate structures that promote water conservation. (76)

Implementing User-pay Principles

In the report entitled State of the Debate on the Environment and the Economy: Water and Wastewater Services in Canada, the National Round Table on Environment and Economy (NRTEE) suggests the lack of full-cost, user-pay principles in providing water and wastewater services in Canada affects sustainability. Canadians use excessive amounts of water because of subsidized prices. This diminishes the country's water resources and places undue stress on aquatic ecosystems. It also means that, as a society, Canadians spend more in total (both consumer and public expenditures) on water and its infrastructure than they should.

The report notes that moving toward full-cost, user-pay, direct-consumer charges for water and wastewater services would reduce water use. Also, it would help to address the challenges related to Canada's aging infrastructure. Old and faulty supply lines and sewers result in high losses of water and wastewater. Over the next 20 years, many water and wastewater treatment facilities, sewers and supply lines in Canada need major upgrading or replacement at an estimated cost of between $79-90 billion. (66)

Figure 3.22 WATER CONSUMPTION IN MANITOBA

Figure 3.23 ESTIMATED WATER USE

TREND: INSUFFICIENT DATA

The amount of water used for municipal purposes appears to have decreased from 136 million cubic metres in 1991 to 131 million cubic metres in 1995/96. However, the 1991 figures are based largely on estimates, while the 1995/96 figures reflect volumes recorded by water meters. Approximately the same number of water plants were used to make the calculations; that is, 150 in 1991 and 152 in 1995/96. However, some locations differ between the two sets of figures.

As economic development in the province increases, so too does the demand for water. More communities are installing water and sewer systems. As well, industrial and agricultural demands continue to grow. The greater the volume of municipal water used, the greater the volume of wastewater that needs to be treated. (see Municipal Waste Management, p. 133, for information on wastewater treatment).

WATER USE EFFICIENCY

In 1994, the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) approved The National Action Plan to Encourage Municipal Water Use Efficiency. The goal of the plan is "to achieve more efficient use of water in Canadian municipalities to save money and energy, delay or reduce expansion of existing water and wastewater systems, and conserve water".

In 1995, Manitoba Environment initiated a water use efficiency program based on the two main elements of CCME's action plan. (43), (44) The first element calls for:

• reducing water use in government facilities
• adopting water-efficient policies, regulations and codes
• promoting public awareness of the benefits of efficient water use
• encouraging acceptance of water-efficient products.

The second element involves assisting communities to increase their water efficiency.

Several activities to encourage efficient water use were identified:

• Change existing plumbing codes to encourage the use of water-efficient appliances, materials and systems.
• Review the impact of other legislation on water use.
• Define specifications on water use efficiency for new construction and permanent renovations of public buildings.
• Identify existing barriers to efficient water use and develop plans to overcome those barriers.
• Build partnerships with municipal and local governments and other agencies of the provincial government.
• Retrofit key government buildings to demonstrate the benefits of efficient water use.
• Develop and distribute public education materials.

WATER CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA

Tap water is an undervalued resource in Manitoba. Most citizens are not aware of the true cost of water, but this expense is quickly becoming apparent to water suppliers. Treatment expenditures are increasing and adequate supplies of appropriate water are becoming more scarce. (43)

Charging flat rates for water, as many municipalities still do, provides no incentive for using water more efficiently. Once water metering is introduced, users can be charged by volume and have an incentive to reduce their use. Industries are charged for municipal water on this basis. Canadian households paying for water by volume averaged 261 litres per person per day, while households paying a flat rate used 403 litres. (24)

Figure 3.24 TYPICAL MUNICIPAL WATER PRICES

Figure 3.25 AVERAGE DAILY HOUSEHOLD WATER USE

TREND: INSUFFICIENT DATA

In 1995/96, Manitobans used more water per capita than the average Canadian 433 litres per person per day including industrial, commercial and institutional use compared with the Canadian average of 340 litres per person per day.

Through its Water Use Efficiency Program, Manitoba Environment has sent information to each municipality to provide ideas for water use efficiency initiatives. Case studies, various strategies and other data are available to interested municipalities.

An essential element for municipal water systems is to target water waste in the most cost effective manner. For example, leaking supply pipes may be a problem for some older communities.

Treating community water and waste water to an acceptable level requires sizable infrastructure and operating expenditures. Using water efficiently is a key to reducing these costs. If the community has high per capita use, advocating efficient household use of treated water, both indoor and outdoor, can be part of the solution.

PIERSON: A WATER SMART COMMUNITY

The Unincorporated Village District (UVD) of Pierson has reduced water use by 37% and energy costs by 35% by establishing a water use efficiency program. Pierson, population 230, is located within the Rural Municipality (RM) of Edward in southwestern Manitoba.

Faced with high water consumption rates, supply pipes vulnerable to winter freezing, and summer water shortages because of shallow wells, the UVD of Pierson created a partnership with the RM of Edward to devise a water use efficiency program.

In 1992, Pierson installed deeper wells and water supply lines to reduce the chance of freezing. At the same time, it shifted from a flat rate for water use to metered usage. Since implementing this initiative in 1992, the UVD of Pierson and the RM of Edward have reduced water use as well as lowered energy and repair costs.

Substantial Savings Realized

Figures from 1989 to 1995 were compared. Water consumption decreased from 34 million litres per year to 21 million litres per year or 450 litres per person per day to 252 litres per person per day. These figures indicate a 37% reduction in public water consumption. With the reduced demand for water, the municipalities saved 35% in energy costs. The two largest cost-saving benefits have come from reduced hydro requirements and fewer repairs to the water system.

Before the installation of meters, rate payers were charged a quarterly flat rate of $37.50 for water consumption. The UVD and RM initiated public consultations in 1989 through newsletters and public meetings to determine the best options for upgrading the water system. The public supported a decision to increase the quarterly flat rate over a three-year period (1989-1991) from $37.50 to $75.00.

Most of the additional revenue collected for this three-year period was used in 1992 to purchase and install water meters. The rest of this money was used for repairs. Higher water rates stimulated more efficient water use by consumers and resulted in lower revenue for the water utility. The money saved in energy costs was used to offset the lower revenue from reduced water use.

Financing the New System

To finance the rest of the program, the RM of Edward issued a debenture (a loan with set payments) to the UVD of Pierson. As well, support for this initiative was provided through a grant from the Water Services Board. These funds were used for capital expenditures associated with the project, specifically for a new well and water supply line. The debenture is being repaid by Pierson through a water bill surcharge of $0.95 per 1,000 gallons. Full payment of the debenture will be completed in the year 2007. The public perceived this consumption-based surcharge as being fairer than payments through property taxes.

As of 1995, the UVD of Pierson has been successful in implementing a user-pay system, has acquired a steady water supply and is continuing to build a reserve fund to ensure economically sustainable water services.

DID YOU KNOW...

• only 5% of our home water supply is used for drinking and cooking.
• about 75% of indoor home water use occurs in our bathrooms. Toilets are the single greatest indoor water user.
• indoor water use peaks twice a day year-round, in the mornings and evenings.
• the biggest peaks during the year occur in the summer when about one-third to one-half of all municipally treated water is sprayed onto lawns.
• as a community grows, the water use grows even faster because the diversity of water uses increases with size.
• a leak of one drop per second wastes 10,000 litres of water per year. A toilet that runs after a flush can waste 200,000 litres of water per year, enough to fill an average hot tub 200 times.
• poorly maintained piping systems and sewers may lose more than 25% of the water they carry.
• a partially filled bathtub uses less water than a long shower; a short shower uses less than a full tub.
• front-loading washing-machines use less water than top-loading washers because of innovative washing technology. A second choice is a clothes washer with a suds-saver attachment and a water-saving cycle.
• grass cut at least five centimetres long requires less water because the roots, new growth and nearby soil are shaded.
• sprinklers that spin in a circle allow less evaporation than an oscillating type that switches back and forth.

FISH

While the master angler program is voluntary, it is quite popular with anglers. As a result, it is considered a reasonable index of success in catching large fish.

Indicators in this section provide information on sport fishing, commercial fishing and general fisheries. Where possible, data sets have been identified by ecozone.

In the sport fisheries, the population of highly prized species has remained constant in some areas while increasing in others. The stocks are being preserved through management techniques such as transfers of fish to targeted waters as well as by conservation regulations guiding barbless hooks and size limits.

In the commercial fishing industry, walleye (pickerel), whitefish and sauger are the most sought-after species. The largest commercial fisheries are located on Cedar Lake, Lake Manitoba, Lake Winnipeg and Lake Winnipegosis. Manitoba's commercial fisheries account for about 33% of Canada's annual commercial catch of freshwater fish. (29)

In some commercial fisheries, walleye and sauger are being exploited beyond sustainable levels. The walleye fishery collapsed on Lake Winnipegosis in the 1960s. A rehabilitation program has been submitted to the Lake Winnipegosis Commercial Fishermen's Advisory Board. Harvests of walleye and sauger on lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba are declining.

NUMBER AND SIZE OF MASTER ANGLER AWARD FISH

An increase in the number of fish that qualify for the master angler program may indicate an increase in the health of that species. The Master Angler program is sponsored by Manitoba Industry, Trade and Tourism. It records the catch of trophy-size fish caught in Manitoba and whether they are kept or released. Substantial catches of trophy fish from a water body indicate the relative health of larger fish in the population.

This is a particularly relevant indicator because large fish are often major spawners. It also indicates the degree of stress to the population both directly (numbers caught and kept) and indirectly (physiological stress on those caught and released).

Master angler species include arctic grayling, brook trout, bullhead, carp, channel catfish, freshwater drum, goldeye, lake trout, mooneye, northern pike, perch, sauger, smallmouth bass, sturgeon, tulibee and walleye. They are found in lakes in the Boreal Plains, Boreal Shield, Prairie and Taiga Shield ecozones.

Improvements in the annual number or size of master angler species may indicate a decrease in stress or an increase in fishing. The positive results of implementing maximum size limit regulations are beginning to appear in several lakes. Maximum size limit regulations protect trophy-size fish by limiting the harvest of fish larger than a specified size.

TREND: STEADY

The number of master angler fish reported in most waters have increased or remained steady since 1984. The regulated use of barbless hooks and size limits have enhanced the numbers of large fish in many populations. Artificial fish mounts have increased the number of trophy fish being released by enabling anglers to keep an artificial replica of their catch. The catch and release program allows fish to continue through their life cycle. This helps to ensure fish populations are maintained in a healthy state.

SPORT FISHING CATCH RATES

The rate at which sport fishermen catch fish indicates the abundance of fish and the quality of the sport fishery. On heavily-used water bodies in southern Manitoba, fewer fish can be caught for each hour of effort. Therefore, acceptable catch rates should range between 0.25 to 0.50 fish per angler-hour. In northern areas accessible by road, more fish are available to catch. Catch rates of 0.50 fish or more per angler-hour are considered acceptable.

By comparison, catch rates in the remote north often reflect natural abundance and should be even higher. Lakes used by tourism operators generally have good catch rates. Since lodge operators rely on the resource, these lakes are managed conservatively.

Along with data specific to certain lakes, overall fishing success is measured every five years by the provincial and federal governments as part of a national survey on sport fishing.

Figure 3.26 SPORT FISHING CATCH RATES

TREND: INSUFFICIENT DATA

While surveys to determine catch rates are completed infrequently and trend information is largely unavailable, certain observations can be made from available data.

Overall success for sport fishermen has improved according to five-year surveys on sport fishing done by Manitoba Natural Resources and the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

Catch rates in southern Manitoba for heavily-used water bodies (e.g., Dauphin Lake, Assiniboine River and Lake of the Prairies) indicate good fishing. The evolving interest of anglers in nontraditional species is reflected by data for the Assiniboine River.

Fishing Improves on Wellman Lake

Estimated numbers of fish caught per hour from recent surveys on Wellman Lake indicate a marked improvement in walleye stocks. Wellman Lake is a relatively small fishery, which has experienced heavy pressure and was reported to have collapsed completely. The improvement may be attributed to the efforts of user groups and Manitoba Natural Resources to re-establish the walleye sport fishery. This was accomplished by stocking the lake with fish, transferring adult walleye, enhancing fish habitat and using conservation regulations.

Recent data from the Boreal Plains/Boreal Shield border indicate good fishing in Reed, Iskwasum and the Cranberry lakes. Data from the 1980s for Athapapuskow and Clearwater lakes had indicated fishing success was lower than desired. Consequently, conservation regulations including maximum size limits were implemented.

ANGLING LICENCES SOLD

The number of angling licences sold may indicate the level of participation and, to some degree, the level of stress exerted on fish stocks. However, because less avid anglers are most likely to give up fishing first, reduced stress from declining participation is minimal.

Currently, about 160,000 angling licences are sold annually in Manitoba. An unknown number of Canadians under 16 and Manitobans 65 and over also fish, but are not required by law to purchase licences.

Figure 3.27 ANGLING LICENCE SALES

TREND: STEADY

Fewer licences sold (Fig. 3.27) indicate that participation by resident anglers is declining. The decline has occurred largely in sales of "regular" licences; that is, licences allowing full catch limits. Sales of "conservation" licences, where the allowable catch is reduced, remain relatively constant. This trend follows an initial increase after the introduction of conservation licences in 1988. Urbanization, less discretionary income and time, other leisure activities and changing family structures contributed to the decrease in angling. This conclusion is supported by catch data indicating relatively good success.

Nonresident licence sales have been increasing nominally the last three years. An increase in conservation licences has made up for the decrease in sales of regular, nonresident licences.

COMMERCIAL HARVEST OF FISH

The commercial harvest of fish is a stress indicator, describing pressures on fish stocks caused by commercial fishing.

The harvest of highly valued species affects the abundance of those particular fish stocks. Walleye and sauger are top-priced fish that fishermen target consistently in large commercial lakes. Quotas are set for these key species based on several factors, including the harvest numbers and harvest conditions for each lake.

Commercial fishing takes place in central, western and northern Manitoba. Information is provided on the four largest commercial fisheries in Manitoba Cedar Lake, Lake Winnipegosis, Lake Winnipeg and Lake Manitoba. Commercial fishing affects the local economies of many small communities. Manitoba's commercial fishing industry employs approximately 3,200 people.

Figure 3.28 CEDAR LAKE

Figure 3.29 LAKE WINNIPEG

Figure 3.30 LAKE WINNIPEGOSIS

Figure 3.31 LAKE MANITOBA

TREND: DECLINE

The number of walleye and sauger harvested are shown in Figures 3.28 to 3.31. Commercial harvest of walleye on Cedar Lake has been more consistent recently, but is under pressure because of the high value of walleye and sauger.
(see Fig. 3.28). The walleye fishery has collapsed on Lake Winnipegosis. (see Fig. 3.30). The walleye and sauger harvest has declined recently on Lake Winnipeg and Lake Manitoba. (see Figs. 3.30 and 3.31). Quotas on these lakes are being redefined to better reflect sustainable harvest levels for these fish. On Lake Winnipeg, the walleye and sauger harvest has been capped at 20% of existing quotas. In addition, season openings have been set, by lake area, to follow the completion of walleye spawning.

A rehabilitation plan for Lake Winnipegosis walleye has been submitted to the Lake Winnipegosis Commercial Fishermen's Advisory Board for review. The Lake Manitoba small mesh fishery for perch is reviewed annually to determine its impacts on walleye and sauger stocks.

Prolonged low commercial production or highly variable harvests of valued species like walleye and sauger is a sign that fish stocks are being heavily exploited. The recent declines in the walleye and sauger harvest are not due to a lack of effort by fishermen. The declines follow periods of high production on Lake Winnipeg and Lake Manitoba. These factors indicate that stocks are being exploited at, or beyond, sustainable harvest levels.

Up to date information on commercial production is critical for the management of commercial fisheries and quotas. Data can now be transferred electronically between Manitoba Natural Resources and the Freshwater Fish Marketing Corporation. Attempts are being made to improve access to the most up to date information for fisheries managers to better protect fish stocks.

COMMERCIAL FISHING EFFORT

"Effort" is defined as the intensity with which fishermen try to catch fish. It can be measured in a few ways, such as the number of nights fished per gill net, number of weeks fished and the number of licences sold.

With more effort, more fish are caught. More deliveries can then be made to the Freshwater Fish Marketing Corporation (FFMC). The result is greater stress on fish stocks.

As in sport fishing, the success of commercial fishermen in catching valuable fish, compared to the amount of effort they expend, indicates the relative abundance of the species. Dividing the commercial production by the number of deliveries provides a catch-per-delivery figure that shows how the fishery performed.

Figure 3.32 EFFORT FOR FOUR LAKES

TREND: DECLINE

In recent years, fishing effort has declined somewhat in the four large fisheries. Most recently, this decline relates to limited success in harvesting valuable walleye and sauger. It also reflects the whitefish reduction program implemented by the FFMC in the early 1990s. This reduction program paid fishermen more money per pound of whitefish if they delivered only 70% of their previous whitefish catch. The price paid was reduced if fishermen delivered more than the reduced quota. This program was implemented by the FFMC because of a reduced demand for whitefish.

Figure 3.32 indicates that commercial catch per unit of effort (CUE) is declining on Lake Winnipeg and Manitoba and has already bottomed out for Lake Winnipegosis. The CUE for Cedar Lake indicates a healthier situation.

In general, the data indicate that fish stocks are being over-exploited. Management plans have been modified to ensure long-term sustainability of fish stocks.

SPECIES COMPOSITION

When new species invade an ecosystem, they impart a degree of instability. The instability arises from the many possible interactions that could be affected, including competition for food. Habitats could be altered, affecting spawning and feeding behaviour. For example, the spawning and feeding behaviour of carp uproots aquatic vegetation.

The greater the number of exotic or non-native species present in a system, the greater the chance that there will be significant adverse impacts.

Potential impacts range from municipal and utility water sources affected by zebra mussels to the impacts of carp, white bass, rainbow smelt and black crappie on the commercial fishery.

TREND: DECLINE

Because Lake Winnipeg has interprovincial and international watersheds draining into it, the lake has been invaded by foreign species like carp, smallmouth bass, black crappie, white bass and rainbow smelt. Some of these species such as smallmouth bass have been stocked in other lakes, but their spread has been uncontrollable.

Other species have been introduced accidentally with the increased mobility of boats between water bodies. For example, fertilized rainbow smelt eggs may have been transferred to northwestern Ontario and, ultimately, to Lake Winnipeg's east side tributaries. Poised for future introduction are grass carp from Alberta and zebra mussels, spiny cladocerans and Eurasian ruffe from the Great Lakes.

The number of new species has increased and is expected to increase through accidental transportation and the actions of other jurisdictions.

Manitoba has implemented a "native species priority" regarding fish stocking and is lobbying for a tougher national protocol to prevent introductions of exotic species.

FORESTS

Manitoba's forests are one of the province's most valuable and abundant natural resources. Forests improve air quality, provide wildlife habitat, moderate temperatures, and minimize soil and water erosion. Forests meet many cultural, recreational and social needs as well.

Approximately 51% of the province is classified as forested land and 90% of these forests grow on provincial Crown lands. Manitoba's forests are predominantly softwood or coniferous stands; less than 25% are hardwood or deciduous trees.

Manitoba's forests influence environmental change at the global level. Canadian forests absorb 135 million tonnes of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) annually, while 58 million tonnes of carbon return to the atmosphere through fires and decomposition. Considering that Manitoba comprises 25% of Canada's boreal forest and 10% of the subarctic ecozones, Manitoba's forests alone store 4.3 million tonnes of carbon. (74)

In this section, the sustainability of forests is discussed through several indicators dealing with forest supply and management, forest fire loss and regenerative efforts. As well, the occurrence of Dutch Elm Disease and efforts to prevent its spread in the province are reviewed. Most of the information in this section is identified by ecozone and is presented on that basis.

Dutch Elm Disease

Dutch elm disease (DED) is a fungus spread by the elm bark beetle and is a major threat to urban forests. Most of the mature trees in southern Manitoba are American elms, the only native tree susceptible to DED. Many cities in eastern Canada and the United States have lost almost all their American elms to DED. Wild stands in Manitoba have also been decimated.

Elm trees in Manitoba communities are estimated to be worth more than $1 billion.(74) Since DED cannot be eliminated from our urban forest ecosystem, the DED program uses an integrated approach to minimize the effects of the disease on Manitoba's urban forests. The program's objective is to manage the loss of these highly valued trees at less than 3% annually. (see Fig. 3.34).

The annual DED management program includes 30 cost-sharing communities as well as 15 buffer zone areas around selected towns and cities. Under the terms of the provincial program, the Manitoba government and the communities share the cost of DED control activities such as pruning, spraying to control Elm bark beetles and planting replacement trees.

Figure 3.33 ELM TREES MARKED FOR REMOVAL

Figure 3.34 LOCATIONS OF ELM TREES MARKED FOR REMOVAL

TREND: STEADY

Due to the success of the management program, most rural Manitoba communities have approximately 75% of their elm trees left after 22 years of DED. Figure 3.33 shows the trend of elm trees marked for removal in 30 rural communities and the 15 buffer zones established across the province since 1975. More elms are lost in communities which do not aggressively remove dead and dying trees from their buffer zones.

Buffer zones are established for communities with heavily treed creeks or rivers entering the community to decrease the spread of the disease. Figure 3.34 shows the location of elms removed from communities. The primary goal is to protect trees on public streets and in parks. In 1996, less than 20% of all elms removed came from streets and parks.

Dutch Elm Disease has spread north and westward in Manitoba throughout the natural range of American elms. Substantial infestation has been detected along the North Duck, Roaring, Swan and Red Deer rivers in western Manitoba. Also, DED has been found extensively along the Carrot River in Saskatchewan. Due to the wide range of elms, the cost of DED management and the prevalence of the disease, wild stands of elms are not managed. As a result, the vast majority of elms in unmanaged areas normally succumb to DED.

In 1995, the provincial DED management program, in cooperation with the City of Winnipeg, removed 14,457 elms from Winnipeg and other communities. In 1996, 15,042 elms were marked for removal. These figures are similar to the number of removals completed in the last few years.

Satellite Images Used in DED Battle

To increase efficiency in DED management, a site-specific urban tree inventory was initiated in 1996. This inventory used Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) technology to produce community maps with trees identified by species. This system will enhance the efficiency of the DED survey and sanitation program. Sanitation programs involve removal of dead, damaged or susceptible trees to prevent the spread of the disease.

The inventory will also provide better overall management of the urban forest. To date, the inventory has been completed for Selkirk, Steinbach and Brandon (completed by City of Brandon staff). An inventory of Gretna was initiated by Village of Gretna staff and will be completed in 1997.

The spread of DED throughout Manitoba's natural elm stands and the subsequent losses were expected. The DED program has always been aimed at managing the disease within the community setting. To meet the program's target, inclusion of new communities in the west and north may be necessary as new infested areas are detected.

ANNUAL ALLOWABLE CUT

The annual allowable cut (AAC) is determined by sustained yield. The volume of trees harvested must be less than the expected total growth for one year. Manitoba Natural Resources calculates the AAC for each forest management unit throughout the province to ensure a continuous supply of timber for the forest industry. Calculations take into account fire losses, the success of regeneration, effects on wildlife habitat and other environmental concerns. (38)A forest management unit is an area of forest land managed as a unit for wood production and other renewable resources.

Annual allowable cut is the primary tool for determining wood allocation for individual forest operators and large industries. Manitoba has 13,000 people directly or indirectly employed in the forest sector. Managing harvest levels within the AAC ensures all these wood users have access to a continuous supply of timber. Forest inventory and AAC calculations contribute to sustainability because they must also factor in other forest uses such as recreation areas and ecological reserves.

Adjusting the Annual Allowable Cut

Manitoba's forest inventory reduces the Annual Allowable Cut by 15% to reflect losses due to fire, insects, disease and buffer zones. On a provincial basis, this is a very conservative estimate.

Approximately 90% of Manitoba's forests grow on provincial Crown lands. Private land makes up the second largest ownership category at 7%. Federal Crown lands, mainly on Native reserves, comprise 1% of forest lands. (39)

The Productive Forest Zone the area where trees are large enough for commercial harvesting includes most of the Prairie, Boreal Plains and Boreal Shield ecozones. Commercial timber exists in a small portion of the Taiga Shield; however, no harvesting occurs in this ecozone because it is inaccessible. The vast majority of the Taiga Shield and the remaining two ecozones (Hudson Plains and Southern Arctic) either have no trees or their trees are too small for commercial purposes. (see Fig. 3.35).

Figure 3.35 FOREST MANAGEMENT UNITS

Figure 3.36 FOREST VALUES

Figure 3.37 ANNUAL ALLOWABLE CUT

Figure 3.38 HARVESTED VOLUME

TREND: TREND UNCLEAR

Demand for softwood has remained relatively constant. Hardwood demand, particularly for aspen, has increased significantly in the Boreal Plains ecozone with the completion of the Louisiana-Pacific mill near Swan River. Increased timber harvesting is expected in the Boreal Shield ecozone when Repap Manitoba's proposed bleached chemical-thermal-mechanical pulp (BCTMP) mill in The Pas is completed. With respect to the proposed BCTMP mill, Repap submitted in November 1996, a 1997-2009 Forest Management Plan. Various forest management activities are proposed in the Plan, including road construction, timber harvesting, forest renewal and integrated resource management. An Environmental Impact Statement addressing the Plan was received in March 1997 and is available for public review. Clean Environment Commission (CEC) public hearings are anticipated in 1997.

Provincially, harvesting is occurring at levels well below the AAC for both hardwood and softwood. Some Forest Management Units in southern portions of the Boreal Shield and Boreal Plains ecozones are harvested at or near AAC levels for softwoods. Hardwood AAC levels may be approached in the Mountain Forest Section (in the Boreal Plains) if Louisiana-Pacific Canada Ltd. harvests its maximum allowed volumes on provincial Crown land. (see Figs. 3.37 and 3.38).

In contrast, the northern and eastern portions of the Boreal Shield ecozone have no forest harvesting, because these areas are inaccessible.

Process Reviewed in Public Meetings

Public meetings were held by Manitoba Natural Resources in 1995 to review the forest inventory process and recent changes to AAC levels for all the forested areas of the province. Louisiana-Pacific Canada Ltd. has recently been granted a large hardwood allocation by a Forest Management Licence Agreement in the Mountain Forest Section. This area is in the Boreal Plains ecozone between the Saskatchewan border and Lake Winnipegosis.

CEC hearings were held in 1996 on the Louisiana-Pacific 10-year Forest Management Plan (1996-2005). The hearings concluded in January 1996 and an Environment Act licence was issued in May. This licence was subsequently appealed. Concerns raised in the appeal related to sustainability of the timber supply, habitat, and biodiversity in the harvesting area. A revised licence addressing concerns was issued in December 1996.

LONG-TERM FOREST MANAGEMENT PLAN

In March 1996, Manitoba released its long-term forest management plan. Manitoba's Forest Plan ... Towards Ecosystem Based Management provides a framework for forest management into the next century. It is based on environmental and economic stability and provides many opportunities to modify the way Manitoba's forests are managed. (33)

The new forest plan, funded under the Canada-Manitoba Partnership Agreement in Forestry, recommends:

• strengthening partnerships among all members of the forest sector
• integrating all forest uses and values into comprehensive forest management
• diversifying the forest sector by developing value-added products
• developing forest plans by ecoregions to meet the ecological and forest management objectives of all stakeholders.

An executive summary of the Forest Management Plan is available from the Forestry Branch of Manitoba Natural Resources. Copies of the entire plan can be found in the legislative library and Manitoba Environment's public registry.

FIRE LOSS

Wildfire management is a high priority because of the potential threat to human life, property and valuable forest resources. In 1989, the worst year for fires in recorded history, about 10% (75 million m3) of the province's merchantable timber was destroyed.

The Manitoba government promotes prevention and planning strategies where possible because of the considerable expense and effort required to contain fires. Fire management activities are most intensive in areas where significant resources are at risk.

While fire is a destructive force to trees and other life, it is an important ecological process in Manitoba's forests. It rejuvenates boreal forests and mixed woods by releasing nutrients and stimulating new growth. In situations where wildfires do not pose a threat, they are often left to burn.

Fire Prevention May Fuel Future Fires

Recent studies have shown that years of fire prevention in an area may result in a build up of fire fuels. When fires eventually do start in these areas, they are often larger, more severe and more difficult to control than if natural fire cycles had occurred. The challenge to fire managers is to balance the protection of life and resources with the natural ecological processes of the forest.

The Agriculture Zone and remote Northern Observation Zone are monitored to ensure that wildfires do not threaten local communities. Management efforts are concentrated on the Primary Protection Zone, which contains most of the productive forest. It is further subdivided into three value zones: low, medium and high. (see Fig. 3.36).

These zones were created to help deploy fire management resources according to forecasted conditions. They also help to direct response when many fires are burning at the same time. The forestry values map is modified annually or as required.

Figure 3.39 FIRE LOSS

TREND: DECLINE

The trend for fire loss is declining. In 1995, 660 fires burned approximately 889,000 hectares compared to the 25-year annual average of 605 fires destroying 367,000 hectares. The Churchill River-Leaf Rapids-Granville Lake region, an area near South Indian Lake, and the region between Island Lake and Red Sucker Lake were affected the most.

Commercial timber resources were lost in the Churchill River-Leaf Rapids-Granville Lake region that lies within the area of the Repap Manitoba Inc. Forest Management Licence.

With the signing of the Louisiana-Pacific Canada Inc. Forest Management Licence, more fire protection was required in 1996 for the previously designated Agriculture Zone north of Riding Mountain National Park. As well, Repap harvested further north than usual. This required an expansion of the High Value Zone.

The trend with all resource-based industries is for the private sector to bear more of the resource management costs. Fire protection is no exception. While the forest industry is not expected to take over fire suppression, it will be assessed higher forest protection charges to reflect the actual cost of the services provided by Manitoba Natural Resources.

NEW FEES FOR FOREST COMPANIES

To ensure that forestry companies pay the true value for resources they extract, Manitoba Natural Resources increased its forest renewal charges (FRC) and timber permit fees. It also added a forest fire protection charge (FPC) to all forested Crown lands in 1996.

Renewal charges and permit fees are adjusted periodically to reflect increased costs for managing forest resources. The FPC was applied because of the increased cost of providing forest fire protection. The forest fire protection charge is necessary to maintain adequate levels of forest fire management. From 1990 to 1995, Manitoba spent an average of $17.7 million annually on forest fire protection activities. The underlying philosophy of the fees is that companies using Manitoba's forests should contribute, at least in part, to meeting these costs.

REGENERATION SUCCESS

Regeneration surveys are inventories taken of a forest area after timber has been harvested. The surveys may also be done after fire, windstorms, flood, drought, insect damage or disease infestations. They evaluate reforestation success three to seven years after a disturbance. Regeneration surveys are an important part of forest management because they direct further reforestation activities to sites shown to be "not satisfactorily regenerated" (NSR). Sites that meet the Manitoba forest renewal standards are "certified" and require no further renewal activities.

Regeneration surveys use a systematic sampling system with a random starting point. Plots are evenly distributed across the regenerating area. Several site qualities are measured, including:

• stocking (the percentage of the area occupied by seedlings)
• density (seedlings per hectare)
• seedling height
• forest health concerns
• potential plot productivity
• physical features.

All regeneration surveyors from industry and government are trained according to procedures developed by the Forestry Branch of Manitoba Natural Resources. Industry survey results are audited periodically by departmental staff.

Figure 3.40 SCARIFICATION

Figure 3.41 REGENERATION SUCCESS

Figure 3.42 PLANTING

Figure 3.43 REPLANTING

TREND: STEADY

The trend for regeneration success is steady. In 1996 almost 15,000 hectares of regenerating forest land was surveyed in Manitoba by three agencies:

Pine Falls Paper Company 2,500 hectares

Repap Manitoba 7,500 hectares

Manitoba Forestry Branch 4,500 hectares

Total 14,500 hectares

Using its new forest renewal standards, the Forestry Branch of Manitoba Natural Resources assessed regeneration survey results for 100,000 hectares over the last 10 years. The analysis revealed that:

• 81.4% of the area had regenerated satisfactorily
• 14.3% of the area had regenerated adequately, just short of provincial forest renewal standards
• 4.7% of the area had regenerated poorly, requiring additional forest renewal treatment.

Forest harvesting in Manitoba is expected to increase significantly (possibly more than 5,000 hectares per year). This will be due to the operation of the $80-million Louisiana-Pacific oriented strand board mill near Swan River, Manitoba. Regeneration surveys will be performed by the company when harvested sites are eligible for surveying. With more harvesting in hardwood stands, the Forestry Branch intends to investigate poplar regeneration standards more closely.

SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT

Canada's national forest strategy entitled, Sustainable Forests: A Canadian Commitment, states that "our goal is to maintain and enhance the long-term health of our forest ecosystems for the benefit of all living things, both nationally and globally, while providing environmental, economic, social and cultural opportunities for the benefit of present and future generations." (10)

The document prepared by the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers, also makes a commitment to develop Canadian criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management. The International Forest Principles, negotiated at Rio de Janeiro during the Earth Summit, recognized the need to create scientifically based, globally accepted indicators of sustainable forest management. These indicators will provide the basis for innovative approaches in managing Canada's forests as ecosystems. Also, they will help to monitor progress toward goals established under the National Forest Strategy.

Certification of Sustainably Managed Forests

Accompanying the development of indicators is the challenge to prove forest products originate from sustainably managed forests. Certification involves the development of a standard, followed by an independent third party audit and then certification of a defined forest area as meeting the standard.

In August 1996, the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) endorsed the standards proposed by the Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) technical committee. The standards were submitted to the Standards Council of Canada for approval. (11)

In June 1996, the International Standards Organization (ISO) voted to establish a new working group on forestry. The working group will gather information to apply ISO's generic Environmental Management System (EMS) standards for forestry practices. The use of the ISO standards will encourage better forestry practices worldwide.

The ISO, established in 1947, is a global federation of national standards agencies from 90 countries. Its goal is to improve the exchange of goods and services between countries. (68)

HEARING HIGHTLIGHTS ON FORESTS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In the fall of 1996, forestry stakeholders from Canada, the US and Mexico met in Winnipeg to discuss how to safeguard the world's forests. Hosted by the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), the North American hearing of the World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development (WCFSD) fostered a policy dialogue on local and global forest issues. (12)

The hearing was attended by private industry, government and environmental agencies, nongovernment organizations and scientific researchers. The North American hearing, along with four other regional hearings, seeks to build an international agenda for reshaping public policies.

Brief History of the WCFSD

Following the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, a group of some 30 former heads of state and government established the World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development (WCFSD). The goals are:

• to increase awareness of the dual function of world forests in preserving the natural environment and contributing to economic development
• to broaden the consensus on the data, science and policy aspects of forest conservation and management
• to build confidence between north and south on forest matters with emphasis on international cooperation.

The WCFSD is an independent group of leaders drawn from politics, science, international organizations and the general public. The WCFSD is consulting with various stakeholders through a series of regional hearings in Asia, North America, South and Central America, Africa and Russia. It hopes to balance economic and environmental objectives for the sustainable management of global forests.

It will present its recommendations for consideration by the UN and national governments. Its report will include a global vision of forests in the 21st century including recommendations for:

• strengthening scientific and environmental policy research
• reconciling conservation and developmental objectives
• achieving sustainable, equitable use of forests through political and institutional mechanisms.

Special reference will be made to financial, human and managerial implications.

NATURAL LANDS AND SPECIAL PLACES

Manitoba's natural lands play an important role in sustaining life and biodiversity by supporting a variety of native plants and animals. Manitoba has endorsed the World Wildlife Fund's Endangered Spaces Campaign "to establish by the year 2000 a network of protected areas representative of each of the natural regions of Canada, the provinces and territories free from logging, mining and hydroelectric development and other activities that could significantly affect natural habitat. It is anticipated that the territory so protected will equal at least 12% of Canada's lands and waters..."

In this section, three indicators are used to describe the status of natural lands:

• Designated Areas natural lands that are recognized formally as parks, wildlife management areas, provincial forests and ecological reserves
• Protected Areas regions where logging, mining, hydroelectric development, oil and gas exploration, and other activities that significantly and adversely affect habitat are prohibited
• Representation a measure of the degree to which protected areas display the biological and landscape diversity of the province's natural regions.

These indicators have been applied on an ecozone basis to Manitoba's natural lands. Manitoba's six ecozones are larger groupings of the 12 natural regions used in past SOE reports.

Figure 3.44 PERCENTAGE OF NATURAL REGION'S LAND USE

A STRAGETY TO PROTECT MANITOBA'S NATURAL LANDS

In December 1996, the Manitoba government released its plan for managing and protecting the province's natural lands and special places. The document, Applying Manitoba's Natural Lands & Special Places Policies, outlines 26 policies reviewed by Manitobans in public meetings and amended to reflect their comments. The report is part of Manitoba's sustainable development initiative.

The document describes the policies as "a statement of collective societal values for managing, protecting and developing Manitoba's special places." It explains how the Manitoba government will achieve the goals of the policies and outlines how local governments, the business community and individual Manitobans can help.

The policies contained in the document support the World Wildlife Fund Canada's Endangered Spaces campaign to establish a network of protected areas. Other policies will be implemented through an ongoing process. The document notes that legislation to implement the concept of sustainable development has been incorporated into The Provincial Parks Act. The policies support other conservation, cultural and heritage initiatives and provide the necessary guidance for putting policies into action. (76)

In January 1997, the Manitoba government released An Action Plan for Manitoba's Network of Protected Areas. The plan outlines the steps to assemble protected lands and identifies the criteria to be used in their selection. (54)

TOTAL DESIGNATED AREAS

Natural lands that have been set aside for a specific purpose are known as designated areas. Some designated areas, such as ecological reserves and some park lands are protected. (see Total Protected Areas, p. 120). Designated areas are found in all ecozones except for the Southern Arctic.

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

Designated areas comprise almost 8.8 million hectares of the province's land base. The re-designation of a portion of the Cape Churchill Wildlife Management Area as Wapusk National Park has increased the total park lands in Manitoba. Two new ecological reserves have also been created.

Figure 3.45 DESIGNATED AREAS

TOTAL PROTECTED AREAS

The first protected area in Manitoba was established in 1932 with the creation of Riding Mountain National Park. In 1976, the Manitoba government created the first ecological reserve, initiating a provincial system of protected areas. This initiative accelerated in 1990 with a commitment to the Endangered Spaces Campaign. In 1992, the Natural Lands and Special Places Policy proposed a network of protected areas in Manitoba. By February 1995, roughly 5.5% of Manitoba was protected.

In 1997, it is anticipated an additional 1% of the province will be protected, largely as a result of the system plan for provincial parks. One new ecological reserve, Lake St. George Caves, contributed an additional 49 hectares of protected land. A second new ecological reserve, Palsa Hazel contributed 1,648 hectares. (see related story, p. 122).

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

The Manitoba government approved the new system plan for Parks in January 1997. The plan is expected to increase the proportion of protected areas to 6.5% of the province. The ability to protect land within existing parks has been provided by the new Provincial Parks Act.

Figure 3.46 PROTECTED LAND

Figure 3.47 NATURAL REGION REPRESENTATION - 1995

Figure 3.48 NATURAL REGION REPRESENTATION - 1997

DEGREE OF REPRESENTATION

To assess whether protected areas are representative of Manitoba's natural landscapes, Manitoba has identified 12 natural regions that have distinctive landscapes created by differences in land forms, climate, geology and vegetation.

Each natural region has been subdivided into landscape units that are unique combinations of climate, physiography, surface geology and soil types. These areas include the entire land base of Manitoba. The representation of a particular landscape unit is classified as follows:

• adequate if a sufficient proportion of that type lies within a protected area and its ecological integrity is likely to be maintained over time
• moderate if a smaller proportion of that type lies within a protected area and some doubt exists as to its ability to maintain ecological integrity over time
• partial if only a minor proportion of that type lies within a protected area and it cannot maintain its ecological integrity
• not captured if no proportion of that type lies within a protected area.
•  

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

The change in the degree of representation in Manitoba's natural regions is shown in Figures 3.47 and 3.48. Improved representation of the Boreal Shield, Boreal Plains and Prairie ecozones will be achieved with the new system plan for provincial parks. The examination of landscape units will result in the identification of new potential protected areas that will improve the representation of Manitoba's natural regions. Inclusion in a protected area protected from development is essential for representation.

UPDATE ON NATURAL LANDS IN MANITOBA

Provincial Parks

Public consultation on a new system plan for provincial parks began in November 1995. The plan establishes a framework for managing parks and provides balance among the many different uses of park land. Some parks are identified in the plan as recreation areas, while others have a role in protecting natural lands . The larger parks serve a variety of purposes including protection, recreation and resource use.

Also, the system plan will describe all provincial parks, identifying boundaries and uses. A key feature of the plan is the designation of approximately 6,700 sq. km. of existing park land as protected areas. Areas recommended for protection include most of Atikaki Provincial Park and portions of Assessipi, Beaudry, Birds Hill, Clearwater Lake, Duck Mountain, Elk Island, Grand Beach, Grass River, Hecla/Grindstone, Kettle Stones, Nopiming, Paint Lake, Spruce Woods, Turtle Mountain and Whiteshell Provincial Parks. These areas are in addition to the 21,500 square kilometres of protected parkland in northern Manitoba.

Federal Parks

On April 24, 1996, His Royal Highness, the Prince of Wales witnessed the signing of a federal-provincial agreement to establish Wapusk National Park. The park became Canada's seventh largest, protecting an immense lowland area of 11,475 square kilometres south and east of Churchill. It is located in the Hudson Plains ecozone.

As well as protecting habitat for polar bears, Wapusk provides critical habitat for caribou, approximately 200 species of birds, a variety of furbearing animals, and an array of arctic and subarctic vegetation. Beluga whales may be found directly off the coast. Near the park, evidence of human occupation spanning 3,500 years exists in the form of prehistoric dwelling structures, campsites, graves, and the York Factory and Fort Prince of Wales national historic sites. Before becoming a national park, Wapusk was part of the Cape Churchill Wildlife Management Area.

A proposal for a national park in the Boreal Plains ecozone (Manitoba Lowlands natural region) was released in February 1996. Parks Canada and Manitoba Natural Resources identified a combination of four distinct areas as the most viable option for a national park. (69)

The combination includes the Long Point, Limestone Bay, Black and Deer islands, and a number of islands at the north end of Lake Winnipegosis. (see Fig. 3.49). The boundaries of the Lake Winnipegosis unit are still to be determined. The proposal was discussed at open houses in the spring of 1996. Consultation with affected communities continues.

Figure 3.49 NATIONAL PARK PROPOSAL

Ecological Reserves

This program involves the selection of areas to preserve plants, animals and natural landscapes. Two new ecological reserves were created.

• Lake St. George Caves

This reserve includes 49 hectares of mixed boreal forest overlaying limestone rock. At least eight caves are present in this area, which is located in the Boreal Plains ecozone. One cave is the largest known hibernating area for bats in the province. The caves also contain unique geologic features including crystals, geodes and other formations.

• Palsa Hazel

This reserve includes 1,648 hectares within Grass River Provincial Park. The area features fen and peat palsas and palsa scars. A palsa is a low hill or knob of perennially frozen peat about 1.5 to 6 metres high and up to 100 metres in diameter. Palsas generally occur near the southern limit of permafrost.

Interpretive Visits

Participation in provincial park interpretive programs reached a total of 80,965 visitor contacts in 1995, up 11% from the previous year. Attendance figures have increased by 24% based on a seven-year average from 1989 to 1995. Attendance at provincial park interpretive programs indicates public interest in natural and cultural resource topics. However, it should be noted that factors such as weather conditions and the type of programming can also influence attendance.

Interpretive programs are offered in three of the six ecozones.

Figure 3.50 INTERPRETIVE PROGRAMS

UPDATE ON HERITAGE RESOURCES

The United Nation's Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Canadian Museums Association define heritage as "the tangible and intangible aspects of our natural and cultural past, from prehistory to the present". Heritage resources are the artifacts, documents, sites, properties and structures which reflect the human experience and its effects on the natural environment. Each generation occupies a world received in trust and has the responsibility to pass its traditions and artifacts on to those who follow.

Heritage stewardship involves the conscientious management of our nonrenewable heritage resources. The practice includes identifying, assessing, making choices, maintaining, conserving and enjoying our heritage resources so their essential integrity remains undiminished.

Since 1991, Manitoba has protected 46 heritage sites, bringing the total of provincial heritage sites to 98 in 1996. Rural municipalities have designated 96 additional municipal heritage sites for a total of 140. The City of Winnipeg currently has 173 structures on its building conservation list.

WILDLIFE

Indicators in this section provide information on the number and status of wildlife species in Manitoba. For the most part, wildlife populations have remained stable according to the Conservation Data Centre, established in 1994 to monitor biodiversity within the province.

The fate of a species depends on the health and extent of its habitat. Two million hectares of wildlife management areas in Manitoba have helped to conserve wildlife resources for a variety of uses.

Two new species, the whooping crane and western prairie fringed orchid have been placed on the endangered species list. Six other species have been listed as extirpated meaning they are no longer found in Manitoba.

Native species are also threatened by the invasion of exotic species introduced into an area free of predators and disease. Purple loosestrife, leafy spurge and St. John's wort continue to plague waterways and pastures.

The populations of most of the 20 species of furbearing animals in Manitoba are either stable or increasing. One species, the timber wolf, is decreasing in number in a localized area around the Duck Mountain and Riding Mountain areas of the Boreal Plains ecozone. There is also renewed interest in trapping, with the opening of new markets in Russia and Asia.

More information on wildlife and biodiversity can be found in Chapter 2, p. 38 to 41, specifically, information on population trends of endangered and threatened species in Manitoba and the number of May ponds.

EXOTIC SPECIES AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Exotic species also referred to as non-native, alien or introduced species are plants and animals that have been introduced into areas outside their own range, either accidentally or deliberately. Once established in their new surroundings, many exotic species create serious economic and ecological impacts.

Many of Manitoba's most economically valuable plant and animal species have been introduced for agricultural purposes, but these species are generally not the problem. In fact, many agriculturally important species are so domesticated, human intervention is often required to keep them alive. The concern rests with invasive exotic species which are free from nature's controling forces of competition, disease and predation.

The ability of invasive exotic species to compete successfully with native species for resources enables them to become the dominant species. Often, they modify the habitat sufficiently to eliminate native species completely. The well-known exotic species purple loosestrife exhibits this characteristic, forming dense stands that are virtually unused by native wildlife species.

Leafy Spurge a Plague in Pastures

If an exotic species is introduced into an area free of the diseases and predators it normally encounters, it may be able to reproduce and spread quickly. This has become a problem in pastures across southern Manitoba which have been invaded by leafy spurge. The leaves of this plant contain a milky juice which makes it unpalatable to grazing livestock.

Control of this species has been complicated by its resistance to some herbicides, and its preference for sandy soils which are not suitable for the application of others. In the Tall-grass Prairie Preserve, near the towns of Tolstoi and Gardenton, the spread of St. John's wort also looms as a serious problem for the same reasons as leafy spurge. The introduction of insect species to act as biological controls is the best hope of controlling these exotic species.

Zebra Mussels Ready to Invade

While the arrival of a new exotic species is a relatively uncommon event, it can be cause for great concern. The zebra mussel, not yet found in Manitoba, has made its way into northwestern Ontario from the Great Lakes where it was introduced in 1988. It remains free of any predators or parasites found in its native range (the Caspian and Black Seas) to control its spread.

Research in the Great Lakes has shown that this species aggressively competes with native species for food and space, resulting in a crash in native mollusk populations within four years of its arrival. Its growth can clog water intake pipes and drainage culverts, resulting in costly removal expenses. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that by the year 2002, the total cost of zebra mussel damage will reach $5 billion. With the movement of people and water from northwestern Ontario to Manitoba, the prospect of keeping this devastating species out of Manitoba is not good.

NUMBER OF WILDLIFE SPECIES

The number of species present in Manitoba from year to year is quite stable. As a result, any changes in these figures on a year-to-year basis are most likely due to changes in the way species, subspecies and varieties of species are classified. The Manitoba Conservation Data Centre (CDC) monitors these changes and modifies its data base accordingly.

The CDC, located within the Wildlife Branch of Manitoba Natural Resources, was established in July 1994 to monitor the status of Manitoba's biodiversity. The relative newness of this program, along with the lack of detailed information for many invertebrates and non-vascular plants, has delayed the development of a species list for some groups.

Figure 3.51 PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES IN MANITOBA

EIGHT SPECIES ADDED TO ENDANGERED LIST

In 1996, eight wildlife species were added to those covered under The Manitoba Endangered Species Act. The whooping crane and western prairie fringed orchid have been added as endangered species. The trumpeter swan, muskox, grizzly bear, greater prairie chicken, long-billed curlew and swift fox have been placed on the extirpated species list.

Manitoba's endangered species list now includes six extirpated, eight endangered and two threatened species. Adding the endangered species to the list protects them in the hopes of preserving them for the future. Whooping cranes will now have additional legal protection during their migration through southwestern Manitoba.

The western prairie fringed orchid is found only in an area between Vita and Stuartburn in southeastern Manitoba. Part of the area has been protected with the establishment of the Manitoba Tall-grass Prairie Preserve near Tolstoi.

The whooping crane does not nest in Manitoba at present, but is seen during migration. As well, the long-billed curlew, while extirpated in Manitoba can be found in the province during migration.

Extirpated Species Candidates for Recovery

Extirpated species are plants and animals that have disappeared from Manitoba, but exist in other parts of Canada or the world. The trumpeter swan has been expanding its range in North America with the assistance of organizations such as the Trumpeter Swan Society. The trumpeter swan may eventually return to the province since they have been found within 15 kilometres of the Manitoba boundary near Greenwater Provincial Park in Saskatchewan.

Extirpated species are candidates for possible recovery. However, in cases such as the grizzly bear, greater prairie chicken and swift fox, this may not be possible because of urbanization or other changes in land use.

Manitoba's endangered species list also includes the piping plover, burrowing owl, peregrine falcon, loggerhead shrike, Baird's sparrow and small white lady's slipper. The two threatened species in the province are the western spiderwort and the ferruginous hawk.

The Manitoba Endangered Species Act designates plants, animals and other organisms as endangered, threatened or extirpated and provides for agreements to restore populations. Under the Endangered Species Act, individuals causing harm to an endangered species can be fined up to $500, jailed for up to three months, or both. Corporations face fines up to $5,000. (see also p. 38-41).

TOTAL FUR PRODUCTION VALUE

Twenty species of wildlife are classified as furbearers. These species are managed to ensure their populations are sustainable.

Trapping of these animals takes place within two broad zones known as "open areas" mostly private lands and registered traplines (RTL) which include Crown lands in central, eastern, western and northern Manitoba.

Populations of furbearing animals are monitored through the monthly financial returns of fur dealers. Under Manitoba regulations, all fur dealers are required to submit a monthly return of their transactions. The dealer records each fur purchase according to the trapper, location of the fur taken, and number of each species purchased. This information is summarized every year and provides details on the scope of the harvest by species and location.

The data show the status of the 20 furbearing species by individual RTL or open area. The data also depend on the market value of the furs. When prices are down, production numbers drop.

Figure 3.52 TOTAL FUR PRODUCTION VALUE

TREND: STEADY

The populations of most furbearing animals are either stable or increasing. Only one species, the timber wolf, is decreasing in number, specifically in the Duck Mountain and Riding Mountain areas of the Boreal Plains ecozone.

Lynx, coyote, and fox populations are increasing after experiencing declines across most of their range during the past several years. Most coyote and fox populations within the Prairie, Boreal Plains, and Boreal Shield ecozones experienced an outbreak of sarcoptic mange that killed thousands of animals. This outbreak seems to have run its course, since few animals with mange have been observed recently.

Lynx are a cyclical species, which means the population is closely tied to the population of its main food source the snowshoe hare. The lynx population began its cyclical decline in 1994. In response to this decline, trapping has been prohibited for two seasons.

Lynx, Hare and Marten Populations Rebound

Reports now indicate lynx numbers are increasing again because of more abundant snowshoe hares. At the same time, the marten population has expanded beyond its traditional range. With an increase in martens, the recovery of the lynx population may take longer, since marten are also predators of hares.

The populations of most furbearing animals fluctuate between extreme highs as with beaver and extreme lows as with lynx. Other species that show signs of extreme fluctuations are white fox, mink and muskrat. As well, some species like marten are rapidly extending their range into the Prairie ecozone. Consideration will be given to opening this region for trapping marten. Population targets have not been established for any species of furbearing animal.

TRAPPING LICENCES SOLD

There are over 6,500 trappers in Manitoba. Approximately 4,471 are open area trappers including 249 Native people living in the Prairie ecozone. The majority of the balance (over 1,800) are aboriginal trappers using registered traplines.

Over 30% of the trappers in Manitoba are Native people living in remote communities. In many of these communities, there are few employment opportunities and trapping often represents the only source of income.

Figure 3.53 TRAPPING LICENCES SOLD

TREND: STEADY

The trend for trapping licences is steady. A total of 6,525 trapping licences were sold during the 1995/96 trapping season. Of these, 4,471 were open area licences, 1,805 registered trapline permits and 249 were licences issued to Native people in the open trapping area.

Based on the number of trappers and the value of the fur sold last year, each licensed trapper grossed $334.00. This is not a true indicator since registered trapline trappers average more than $1500 per year. Many licence holders take only one or two animals, if any at all. They buy a licence just in case they encounter a fox or coyote while hunting. Under Manitoba regulations, a trapper's licence is required before any furbearing animal can be harvested.

The number of trappers has declined since the mid-1970s when there were over 12,000 licensed trappers in Manitoba. The reasons include low fur prices, little recruitment of new trappers into the industry and the uncertainties of the European Union regulation to ban fur products from countries using leg-hold traps.

New Markets Revive Industry

However, there is now renewed interest in trapping. The industry appears more confident and stable because of new markets in Asia and Russia and stronger domestic markets in North America. Fur prices are increasing again.

There has been a noticeable increase in the number of young people trapping. Several workshops have been conducted specifically for first-time trappers who are required to pass a qualifying examination before they can purchase a licence. The proportion of young people between the ages of 11 and 17 attending these workshops is increasing.

IMPORTANCE OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS TO BIODIVERSITY

The Manitoba Wildlife Act provides for the designation of Crown lands as wildlife management areas for the "better management, conservation and enhancement of the wildlife resource of the province". Wildlife management areas are intended to help maintain biodiversity and biological integrity. Other uses are permitted where they will not compromise primary wildlife values or where they will enhance habitat for desired species.

Wildlife management areas are important for subsistence hunters, recreational hunters, trappers and ecotourists. The 1991 Importance of Wildlife to Canadians study indicated that 89% of Manitobans participate in wildlife-related activities, many of which occur in wildlife management areas.

There are approximately two million hectares of land in the wildlife management area system. This is down from 4.2 million hectares because of the creation of Wapusk National Park from a portion of the Cape Churchill Wildlife Management Area.

As natural lands are converted to other uses, particularly in the Prairie ecozone, wildlife management areas take on increasing importance as protected regions of native vegetation. However, they are under increasing pressure to be used for agriculture and natural resource extraction.

Figure 3.54 TOTAL HUNTING LICENCE SALES

POPULATION TRENDS OF MIGRATORY GAME BIRDS

Population estimates are generated from the Waterfowl Breeding Pair and Habitat Survey conducted every spring to estimate the size of the waterfowl breeding populations. The surveys are done by the Canadian Wildlife Service, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, with assistance from the Province and Ducks Unlimited.

Aircraft are used to survey the principal breeding areas in North America. These areas include the Great Plains, parts of northern Canada, northern Manitoba, Alaska and some areas in eastern Canada. In Manitoba, the survey area covers southwestern Manitoba (Prairie Ecozone) and an area north and east of The Pas (northern portions of the Boreal Plains and Boreal Shield ecozones). The Canada goose populations in the Hudson Plains ecozone in northeastern Manitoba are also surveyed.

Figure 3.55 DUCKS IN NORTHERN MANITOBA

Figure 3.56 CANADA GEESE

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

In northern portions of the Boreal Plains and Boreal Shield zones, 1996 duck populations (see Fig. 3.55) were below 10-year and long-term means.

Canada goose populations continued to increase across Manitoba while snow geese have expanded their range in the Hudson Bay region. (see Fig. 3.56).

During the past four years, precipitation has been near or above normal in many parts of Manitoba. Waterfowl have responded positively to the improved water conditions. As well, wetland habitat programs associated with the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) are controlling the impact on breeding habitat by agriculture. Collectively, they have created a very positive outlook for waterfowl populations in southern Manitoba. (see also, Chapter 2, p. 40-42).

MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

In 1989, the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) set a nationwide goal for waste reduction. The goal is to cut in half the amount of solid waste each Canadian sends for disposal. This target is based on the 1988 rate of waste generation.

In 1991, Manitoba's Waste Reduction and Prevention (WRAP) Strategy Report established an interim waste reduction target of 20% by 1995. Cross-Canada surveys indicate that Manitoba's interim objective has been achieved. The strategies initiated under WRAP are reducing waste.

In 1994, measurements show the amount of waste generated per person in Manitoba has decreased from 1,000 kg per person per year to approximately 790 kg per person per year. While evidence suggests progress is being made, additional information is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of waste reduction efforts properly. (45)

Sustainable Waste Management Needed

The need for improved waste management practices, improved landfill operations and regional waste management planning has been recognized. With enactment of the Waste Disposal Ground Regulation in 1991, emphasis has been placed on reducing the number of substandard waste disposal sites in the province.

A program to consolidate waste disposal sites was initiated in 1992. The Regional Waste Management Assistance Fund (RWMAF) was created to establish regional waste management systems. Matching grants up to $20,000 were available to municipalities studying the feasibility of these systems. The program funded 22 municipal projects involving 90 municipal corporations. (28)

Partnerships with industry, municipalities and nongovernment organizations were pursued to establish waste reduction and recycling efforts. The tire stewardship and multi-material stewardship initiatives in 1995 were direct results. (45)

Indicators in this section provide information on waste disposal grounds, wastewater treatment systems and waste reduction activities. Information is presented on a provincial basis, except for data on per capita volume waste water which is available for the northern region only. More information on waste management can be found in Chapter 2,
p. 62-64.

ACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL GROUNDS

Waste disposal sites are categorized according to the population they serve and the amount of attention given to the waste products deposited there.

Class One sites serve a population of more than 5,000 persons. Because of the volume of waste handled at a Class One site, their operating requirements are generally more restrictive. Daily covering of waste is required. As well, an environment licence is needed before any new Class One site can begin accepting waste. At Class Two sites, which serve between 1,000 and 5,000 people, monthly waste coverage is required. Class Three sites serve up to 1,000 people and must cover waste on a seasonal basis or as directed by an Environment Officer.

Neither liquid waste disposal nor open burning is allowed at any waste disposal ground, unless it is specifically included as a condition of the operating permit.

Figure 3.57 ACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL GROUNDS

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

Active municipal waste disposal sites have decreased by almost 18% since Manitoba's Waste Disposal Ground Regulation was revised in 1991. Seventy-eight sites have been closed. In 1995, there were 361 active sites including 13 Class One sites, 81 Class Two sites and 267 Class Three sites.

The largest decrease has been in the number of Class 3 sites, which have been reduced from 313 in 1991 to 267 in 1995. This reflects a move to phase out sites with a potential for environmental risk such as groundwater pollution.

The Waste Disposal Ground Regulation is being reviewed because of the improvement in waste management practices and landfill operations. The intent of the review is to streamline and improve the regulation.

Waste disposal grounds are being upgraded throughout Manitoba. A Class Two waste disposal ground in the RM of Thompson is operating as a regional landfill, accepting municipal solid waste from the RMs of Pembina, Manitou, Somerset and Lorne.

A new Class One landfill opened in November 1996 in the RM of Stanley. The new landfill serves approximately 17,000 residents from Winkler, Morden and the RM of Stanley. The new landfill replaces two Class One landfills and a Class Three site. It is the third landfill in Manitoba to weigh and record the amount of waste deposited. The landfill is not included in the number of active waste disposal grounds in Figure 3.57 because it includes information to December 1995 only.

ANALYSING WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE CAPITAL REGION

In 1996, Manitoba Environment retained Wardrop Engineering to compile an inventory of solid waste activities in the capital region of Manitoba. (83) The capital region includes the city of Winnipeg, the towns of Selkirk and Stonewall and the 13 rural municipalities of Cartier, East St. Paul, Headingley, MacDonald, Richot, Rockwood, Rosser, St. Andrews, St. Clements, St. Francois-Xavier, Springfield, Tache and West St. Paul. The population of the capital region is 696,601 based on the 1991 census. Approximately 88% of the population lives in Winnipeg.

A detailed questionnaire was sent to each municipality in the area. Information on solid waste management activities was then compiled into a database, summarized into tables and analysed.

As of September 1996, there were 28 waste disposal sites operating in the capital region with four Class One, 12 Class Two and 12 Class Three waste disposal grounds. (see definitions, p. 130). Within the next five years, 17 of these waste disposal grounds are scheduled to close. Only two new disposal grounds and one total recycling facility are planned.

Summary of Survey Results

Accurate waste generation rates (in kilograms per person per day) for each jurisdiction could not be determined because most of the landfills do not have weigh scales. Instead, the rate for each rural municipality is estimated at 1.5 kg/person/day.

The annual cost per household for solid waste management in the capital region varies from $30 to $175. These values are also estimates because accurate records of waste management costs are not kept by all jurisdictions.

Questionable Landfills Identified

Nine of the waste disposal grounds in the capital region do not comply with the Waste Disposal Ground Regulation regarding set-back distances from the nearest residence (at least 400 metres), water well (at least 400 metres) or surface water body (at least one kilometre). Altogether, 15 of the waste disposal grounds in the capital region may be environmentally unsound. However, only seven of these sites are scheduled to close within the next five years. A total of 44 closed waste disposal grounds were identified in the region.

Based on the findings of the questionnaire, Wardrop made the following recommendations:

1. A comprehensive waste management strategy should be developed for the capital region.

2. Site suitability analyses should be conducted on all waste disposal grounds that are not slated for closing within the next five years.

3. The location of all closed waste disposal grounds should be determined and an environmental assessment should be performed to identify any potential environmental or health impact.

4. Jurisdictions should keep accurate records of their waste management costs and waste collection quantities.

5. A comprehensive waste education program should be developed for the region.

6. A program for the collection and disposal of household hazardous wastes should be implemented by each member to prevent these materials from being deposited in a waste disposal ground.

7. Drop-off depots for recyclables should be made available in convenient locations by all members.

8. Tipping fees should be charged on large loads.

9. Members should consider operating a composting area within the existing waste disposal grounds.

10. Tire storage compounds should be available within all jurisdictions.

11. Information from the survey should be updated annually or biennially.

CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE

It is estimated that over 100,000 tonnes of construction and demolition waste are generated in Manitoba annually. This represents about 20% of the solid waste that enters a typical municipal landfill . This waste is composed primarily of waste wood, rubble, paper, gypsum, building materials and metal.

Since 1994, Manitoba Environment has maintained a close working relationship with the construction industry to encourage environmentally sound practices. The department has helped various construction associations develop an environmental code of practice, conduct a waste audit and initiate a demolition site demonstration project.

Manitoba Environment also worked with Environment Canada to establish a Used Building Material Association to promote stores active in the reuse of building materials. The founding conference of this association was held in Winnipeg in September 1996, linking for-profit and nonprofit stores across North America.

COMPOSTING FACILITIES

Manitoba Environment estimates that organic materials represent over 30% of the province's municipal solid waste stream. Much of it can be composted, including yard wastes, food wastes, sewage sludge, wood wastes and animal manure. Composting allows these materials to rot in a controlled structure to produce an organic product.

Along with reducing the amount of waste going to landfills, composting returns valuable nutrients to the soil. Compost is a resource in itself and can be used for landscaping, potting soil and fertilizer.

Large-scale composting of municipal and industrial waste is on the rise throughout Canada. To ensure that composted products are safe, the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) adopted Guidelines for Compost Quality in 1996.

Figure 3.58 COMPOSTING FACILITIES

TREND: TREND UNCLEAR

Several Manitoba municipalities promote backyard composting and provide depot or curbside collection services for yard and garden wastes. Successful composting programs have been launched in Winnipeg, Portage la Prairie, Virden, Brandon and Winkler. The Sustainable Development Innovations Fund (SDIF) has provided more than $100,000 to several municipal composting initiatives.

As part of the 1996 WRAP Strategy, existing municipal programs will be reviewed to determine whether they can be applied on a wider scale. Composting industrial and municipal organic waste will have to become commonplace to reach Manitoba's goal of 50% waste reduction by the year 2000.

Partnerships will be pursued with municipal governments, industry, nongovernment organizations and other stakeholders to develop a provincial composting strategy. Manitoba Environment will provide pertinent information to organizations undertaking composting and other organic waste minimization initiatives.

MANITOBA PRODUCT STEWARDSHIP PROGRAM

The Manitoba Product Stewardship Program (MPSP) was launched in January 1995 as a partnership between consumers, government and industry. The program provides financial support to municipal governments to encourage the efficient collection, processing and marketing of recyclable commodities. It is estimated the program will help to divert a significant portion of the estimated 140,000 tonnes of post-consumer packaging and paper waste annually from Manitoba landfills.

As a result of the program, more than 50% of Manitoba municipalities have established recycling programs voluntarily. Over $2 million was paid to municipalities in the first year of the program including $1.2 million to the City of Winnipeg. Over 15,500 tonnes of eligible materials were recovered in 1995 by 114 municipal recycling programs.

How the Program Works

MPSP support payments cover up to 80% of the net cost of a municipal recycling program. Municipalities outside Winnipeg are eligible for payments of $152 for every tonne of eligible material recycled. In Winnipeg, support payments have been set at $128 per tonne for a curbside program and $84 per tonne for materials collected through depot systems.

To be eligible for funding, municipalities are required to operate or contract for recycling services. They must collect newspapers, flyers, aluminum, glass and steel containers, and plastic soft drink bottles. Funding is also available for the collection of magazines, milk cartons, boxboard and telephone books.

Objectives of the MPSP are to:

• maximize the reduction, reuse and recycling of designated products and materials
• hold distributors of waste-generating materials responsible for sharing the costs of managing those wastes
• incorporate the cost of waste management into the product price
• provide stable, long-term funding to support municipal recycling programs.

Municipal support is only one element of the MPSP. Other
program components that have been identified include:

• northern community assistance (additional transportation assistance of $40 per tonne is available)
• litter abatement
• education
• market development.

Revenue to support the MPSP is derived from a two-cent levy on all nondeposit, nondairy beverage containers. The WRAP levy generates more than $5 million annually to be invested in waste reduction and recycling efforts. (45)

(see also, p. 62-64).

WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

There are 407 municipal wastewater treatment facilities in Manitoba serving about 85% of the population. The total number of private sewage disposal systems in use is unknown, but approximately 1,304 were built or upgraded in 1995.

Most waste water from municipalities is treated to varying degrees in a sewage plant before it is discharged. Primary treatment involves the mechanical removal of solid wastes. Secondary treatment is based on biological processes by which bacteria degrade the bulk of dissolved organic substances. Finally, tertiary treatment is a chemical process designed to remove additional contaminants such as nutrients and heavy metals. The quality of the water returned to the environment depends on the level of treatment provided.

Generally, lagoons are the preferred method of sewage treatment since land is readily available and a lagoon is easier to maintain than a sewage treatment plant. Usually, the choice of a plant over a lagoon is related more to the availability of land than the size of the population.

Liquid Pits To Be Phased Out

Although the 1991 Waste Disposal Grounds Regulation set the stage for phasing out liquid waste pits at waste disposal sites, liquid pits still serve approximately 40,900 Manitobans. Since 1993, the number of liquid pits has been reduced from 78 to 25.

Liquid pits are used to store untreated sewage, mostly from household septic tanks and holding tanks. Many sites are not designed to handle the volume of liquid sewage they hold. Problems with odour, improper site locations and the potential for groundwater contamination are the main reasons for phasing out the pits. Once the pits are closed, liquid wastes must be taken to lagoons or treatment plants.

Temporary operating permits are in place for the remaining pits and are renewed annually. The process of closing all liquid pits is expected to take another two years.

Figure 3.59 WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

There is an ongoing effort to improve wastewater treatment in Manitoba. Licensing of wastewater treatment systems became a requirement under The Environment Act in 1988.

PRIVATE SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEMS

With an increasing amount of development taking place in rural areas, especially in the capital region around Winnipeg, concerns about the quality of on-site wastewater management systems have been raised. Since 1976, The Private Sewage Disposal Regulation has guided on-site sewage disposal from private dwellings or businesses where the water flow is less than 14,000 litres per day.

An extensive review of the regulation was completed in 1995. Proposed amendments include a change in name to On-site Wastewater Management Systems Regulation as well as requirements to certify system installers and wastewater haulers.

Revisions will address:

• soil testing requirements
• how the soil's ability to absorb effluent affects the size and type of system required
• updated specifications for tanks and systems
• alternate systems such as composting toilets.

Also, Manitoba Environment is developing a homeowner information package on the proper maintenance of on-site wastewater management systems.

These systems such as the commonly used septic tank and disposal field hold or treat sewage, effluent, septage or greywater on location. On-site wastewater management systems are used for household wastes in areas where municipal wastewater treatment is not available. They are not designed for industrial wastes.

Figure 3.60 PRIVATE SEWAGE INSTALLATIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS

TREND: STEADY

Under the Private Sewage Disposal Regulation, anyone installing or altering an on-site wastewater management system must register with Manitoba Environment. A registration form must be submitted before construction begins and approval from Manitoba Environment is required before the system is covered.

According to the registrations received, 1,643 private sewage disposal systems were built or upgraded in 1994 and 1,304 were built or upgraded in 1995. These figures include repairs to existing systems.

WASTE WATER GENERATED -- NORTHERN MANITOBA

This indicator provides information on the per capita volume of waste water generated in the northern region of the province only. Information is also given for the amount of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) generated and the mass of suspended solids in waste water per capita.

There are no data for the rest of the province. Under The Environment Act, operators of wastewater treatment plants are not required to keep records of the amount of waste water generated. Discharges from lagoons cannot be quantified since lagoon levels are never constant at the time of discharge. Also, estimated volumes would not account for evaporation.

Manitoba Environment's northern regional office conducted a study in 1996 to determine per capita volumes of waste water. Eight northern communities representing approximately 80% of the region's population of 36,200, were selected for the study. These were Churchill, Cormorant, Flin Flon, Gillam, Moose Lake, Snow Lake, The Pas and Thompson. The northern region includes portions of the Boreal Plains, Boreal Shield and all the Taiga Shield, Hudson Plains and Southern Arctic ecozones.

This population figure does not include the 35,910 people living in First Nations communities in the North. Facilities in First Nations communities are not licensed by the Province because they are under federal jurisdiction.

Levels of Sewage Treatment Vary

Varying levels of sewage treatment are provided in the selected communities. However, most communities provide primary sewage treatment. The study looked at typical volumes of sewage effluent from selected treatment facilities. It examined the relative volumes and concentrations of treated and untreated sewage at these sites.

Much of the organic matter in effluent discharged directly into water bodies is consumed by bacteria. Oxygen is depleted in this process, so the effluent is said to have a biochemical oxygen demand. Dissolved oxygen in water is essential to aquatic life. The lower the degree of sewage treatment provided, the greater the BOD of the effluent and the greater the impact on the biological community in the water. Unless waste water receives secondary treatment, disease-causing bacteria may be present in the effluent. The trend toward secondary and tertiary treatment of municipal effluent will lessen its adverse impacts on the aquatic environment. (29)

Suspended solids refers to the solids left in waste water following primary treatment.

Figure 3.61 NORTHERN REGION WASTE WATER CHARACTERISTICS

TREND: TREND UNCLEAR

In the northern ecozones, 21 sewage lagoons serve 20,000 people and 30 treatment plants serve 16,200. Most of these facilities provide primary treatment of waste water.

The estimated volume of waste water generated in northern ecozones is 193,400 litres per person per year or 530 litres per person per day. Estimates for the northern region show the mass of BOD generated is 17.3 kg per person per year discharged to wastewater treatment plants. Seven kilograms per person per year is discharged as effluent to the environment from those facilities.

The mass of suspended solids generated in the northern ecozones is estimated to be 7.9 kg per person per year. This represents the amount of treated effluent leaving wastewater treatment plants and entering the environment.

The waste water volume of 530 litres/person/day is higher than the typical values for smaller communities on a municipal wastewater system. The use of "bleeders" that keep water flowing through sewer lines and prevent freezing is the likely cause of the higher levels. However, it does show a need for northern municipalities and communities to use water more efficiently.

Manitoba Environment established a water use efficiency program in 1995 to provide advice to municipalities and homeowners on using water more efficiently. (see related information in Water Use, p. 101).

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

Hazardous wastes are chemical substances that pose a threat to the environment or to human health. They range from common household items such as bleach and paint thinner to industrial toxins and biological by-products of hospitals and laboratories.

Most provinces track the transportation of hazardous waste through the manifest system for the federal Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act. However, this system does not provide information on the amount of waste generated. (85)

Although inter-provincial shipments of hazardous recyclable materials must be tracked by manifests, shipments within Manitoba are not tracked. Examples include lead-acid batteries shipped within Manitoba to collection facilities and waste oil shipped to the Enviro-Oil Research Ltd. facility in Winnipeg for recycling.

Indicators in this section provide provincial information on PCB storage and treatment, petroleum storage, management facilities, hazardous waste registrations and transportation. Information is provided on a provincial basis.

PCB STORAGE SITES

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are environmentally persistent chemicals that are difficult to destroy. Because of their cooling, insulating and fire-resistant properties, PCBs have been used in electrical systems all over the world. PCBs are found in electrical equipment such as capacitors and, to varying degrees, in the insulating oil of transformers.

The use of PCBs is strictly regulated in Canada. Under federal and provincial laws, any fluid containing PCB levels of 50 ppm or more is considered an environmental risk. Just one drop of PCB in a litre of mineral oil results in a concentration of 65 ppm. (51)

PCB storage sites are regulated under The Dangerous Goods Handling and Transportation Act. The act requires these sites be secure, protected from the weather and capable of cleaning up spills quickly.

Materials stored at these sites include PCB-contaminated oil as well as capacitors, light ballasts, transformers, oil, paint, soil, clothing, electromagnets, machine parts and insulation containing polychlorinated biphenyls.

These items are stored throughout the province until they can be shipped to Manitoba Hydro's storage facility in Winnipeg. Then they are transported to Alberta's licensed disposal facility in Swan Hills for incineration. Sometimes these materials are shipped directly to the Swan Hills facility or to the United States for disposal.

Figure 3.62 REPORTED PCB MATERIALS

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

As of December 1995, there were 113 storage sites for PCBs in Manitoba a decrease of two from 1994. These include 22 Manitoba Hydro sites, 27 school division sites and 64 other sites. Some of these sites have no waste, but operators are keeping them registered until they are certain no other waste will be generated. They may be waiting for storage arrangements to be made with Miller Environment Corporation (formerly, the Manitoba Hazardous Waste Management Corporation) or Manitoba Hydro.

As of March 1996, 350 tonnes of PCB wastes are estimated to be held in Manitoba storage sites. It is estimated the amount of PCB-contaminated oil (over 45 ppm) in use as of July 1995 is about 230,000 litres.

Approximately 1,000 tonnes of waste were shipped to the Alberta Special Waste Treatment Centre in Swan Hills between December 1993 and July 1994. About 70 tonnes were removed between December 1995 and February 1996. New regulations under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act allow PCB material to be exported to the United States for disposal.

Meanwhile, because PCBs are being phased out of use, the amount in storage and in service continues to decline. The Manitoba government hopes to eliminate all out-of-service PCB material at storage sites by June 1998.

TOTAL PCB OIL TREATED BY MANITOBA HYDRO

Manitoba Hydro annually decontaminates up to 1.5 million litres of insulating oil containing PCBs of varying concentrations. The clean, processed oil is reused within the system or sold to oil-handling facilities for reuse.

Figure 3.63 PCB-CONTAMINATED OIL CLEANUP

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

A total of 1.5 million litres of PCB-contaminated oil were treated in 1994 and 1.4 million litres were treated in 1995. These figures include both oils with less than 45 parts per million (ppm) of PCBs and oils with more than 45 ppm of PCBs. Under federal and provincial laws, any fluid containing PCB levels of 50 ppm or more is considered a regulated substance. Manitoba Hydro works to a more stringent standard of 45 ppm.

In 1994, 1.2 million litres of oil with less than 45 ppm PCBs and 300,522 litres of oil with more than 45 ppm PCBs were treated. Figures for 1995 were 1.3 million litres and 165,719 litres respectively.

PCB OIL TREATED VS STORAGE

In 1984, approximately 4.4 million litres of oil containing PCBs at more than 45 ppm required decontamination. As PCBs are phased out, put into storage and destroyed, the amount of PCBs still requiring treatment has been reduced to 734,468 litres. Approximately 82% of the original estimated amount of 4.4 million litres has been treated to date.

Figure 3.64 OILS CONTAINING MORE THAN 44 ppm OF PCBs

TREND: STEADY

An estimated 734,468 litres of PCB oil awaits treatment. An error in calculation in the State of the Environment Report for Manitoba 1995 put this figure at 450,000 litres.

The CCME set a goal of phasing out the use of PCBs by 1993. However, there is still PCB material in service, mostly in light ballasts and the oil of privately owned transformers. This equipment will be decommissioned eventually, through attrition. It is unknown how long this will take.

MANITOBA HYDRO FIRST ELECTRIC UTILITY TO TREAT PCBs

In 1984, Manitoba Hydro became the first electric utility in Canada to set up a program for decontaminating insulating oils containing PCBs. During the first two years, the work was performed by a contractor. Since late 1985, Manitoba Hydro has performed the work itself at the Waverley Service Centre in Winnipeg using a mobile decontamination unit. Since the program started, it has focused mainly on decontaminating insulating oil found in power and distribution apparatus containing more than 45 ppm of PCBs.

PCB-contaminated oil is treated by a process that uses metallic sodium to chemically destroy PCBs. Once the PCBs have been destroyed, the PCB-free insulating oil is renewed
and reused in oil-filled electrical apparatus. The end product of the treated PCBs is disposed of at an approved landfill. (50)

The building at the service centre is used exclusively to store PCB-contaminated material. The building, a secure 670-metre storage area, is fire-resistant and guarded. The concrete floor is coated with impermeable epoxy and includes a 15-centimetre high perimeter dike to contain any leakage.

Contaminated electrical equipment as well as materials such as dirt, gravel, rags and other solids are housed in the building until disposal. The building is also used to store PCB materials for the Manitoba government and Miller Environmental Corporation. (51)

PETROLEUM STORAGE TANKS METTING STANDARDS

In the 1970s, several incidents of groundwater contamination from leaking petroleum storage tanks in the Manitoba communities of Birds Hill and Stonewall created a public outcry that led to Clean Environment Commission hearings.

Upon the commission's recommendations, the Manitoba government enacted a regulation for the storage and handling of petroleum products in 1976. This legislation, requires tank owners to register their tanks, keep regular product inventory, report leaks and spills immediately, and repair or remove leaking tanks. The regulation applies to all underground tanks and above ground tanks with a capacity of 4,545 litres or more.

A proposed amendment to this regulation will have more stringent requirements, including the licensing of petroleum contractors and adoption of the CCME Environmental Codes of Practice for Aboveground and Underground Storage of Petroleum Products.

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

Over 65% of all petroleum storage tanks meet current standards. Efforts to improve petroleum storage are ongoing.

The number of petroleum storage tank sites has been reduced. The trend toward fewer storage tanks will likely continue. Major oil companies are closing some service stations and some smaller independent companies are closing. Reduction in the number of storage tanks means a reduced risk of accidental leakage.

Figure 3.65 PETROLEUM STORAGE TANKS - # OF TANKS

Figure 3.66 PETROLEUM STORAGE TANKS - # OF SITES

DID YOU KNOW...

• the two leading causes of leaking underground storage tanks are improper installation and corrosion.
• 4.5 litres of gasoline can make 4.5 million litres of water undrinkable.
• there are more than 200,000 underground petroleum storage tanks in Canada. It is estimated that 6,000 to 12,000 of them are leaking.
• gasoline vapours can cause dizziness, headaches, vomiting and, in chronic cases, cancer.
• petroleum contamination cleanup can cost from $10,000 to $250,000 per site.
• a 3.2 mm perforation in an underground storage tank can leak 340,000 litres of gasoline in one year.
• signs of leaking include settling of soil, a leaning pump island, stained soil, spills around the fill pipe, oil sheen in nearby streams and ditches, withered vegetation and use of more fuel than usual. (41)

CONTAMINATED SITES

Contaminated sites are locations where soil or groundwater has been contaminated, often as a result of spills, leaks or faulty waste management practices at commercial sites. Many sites are former petroleum storage areas that have been closed and are being sold for alternate uses.

Cleanup required at the sites varies according to the degree of contamination, the threat posed to human health, and the intended use of the site. (39 ) Contaminated sites are located throughout Manitoba.

Figure 3.67 NUMBER OF CONTAMINATED SITES

TREND: STEADY

By December 1996, 47% of the contaminated sites in Manitoba had been treated. Of the total confirmed sites, 788 or 90% involve petroleum products. Soil is affected at 78% of the sites, groundwater at 2%, soil and groundwater at 19%, and surface water at 1% of the sites.

The Contaminated Sites Remediation and Consequential Amendments Act was passed by the Manitoba legislature in November 1996 and is expected to be proclaimed into law in early 1997.

The Act, which replaces the remediation provisions of the Dangerous Goods Handling and Transportation Act, establishes an improved process for dealing with all aspects of contaminated sites including:

• site investigation
• site designation, based on risk to human health and
  environment
• assessment to determine whether a site needs remediation
• remediation provisions
• a process based upon the "polluter pays principle" for determining responsibility
• issuance of a certificate of compliance, once a site is
  satisfactorily remediated.

USED OIL STEWARDSHIP PROGRAM

In 1991, a report by the Waste Reduction and Prevention (WRAP) Committee on Used Oil recommended that a lubricating oil stewardship program be established in Manitoba. Using oil to suppress dust on roads was banned in 1994 and new controls have been established for the use of used oil in space heaters. While used oil collection has more than doubled since 1991, a convenient collection system has yet to be established.

It is estimated that, of the 36 million litres of new lubricating oils sold in Manitoba every year, 19.8 million litres are potentially recoverable. The other 45% is consumed in use through engine loss or leaks. In 1994, records indicate that
only 17.5% of used oil sold in Manitoba was recovered.

Manitoba Environment has adopted the following objectives for used oil:

• to establish a provincial recycling program for used oil containers and filters in 1997
• to reclaim 80% of recoverable used oil by the year 2000.

The Western Canada Used Oil/Container/Filter Task Force, established in 1993, has developed a product stewardship proposal for western Canada. The report is being reviewed by Manitoba's Used Oil Management Committee. The committee was established in January 1996 to help Manitoba Environment implement a used oil stewardship program. The committee has representatives from urban and rural municipalities, lubricant manufacturers and distributors, and automobile user and environmental groups.

Covering Collection Costs

The value of used oil is not high enough to support the costs of collection and processing throughout Manitoba. The task force identified a need for strategic intervention to ensure effective collection and reprocessing. It advocates end users pay an environmental handling charge to cover the responsible management of the products they buy. The basic goal of the task force was to design a system that would be efficient, effective and fair to both consumers and industry stakeholders.

Under The WRAP Act, a regulation to support this new stewardship program was drafted in the fall of 1996. Initiation of the program is planned for 1997. Complementary initiatives to increase the recovery of used oil are likely, including changes to regulations on hazardous waste and new standards for used oil depot operations. (45)

Figure 3.68 FATE OF OIL SOLD IN MANITOBA

NUMBER OF WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES

Manitoba Environment has increased its emphasis on the management of hazardous waste. The department is encouraging on-site waste minimization programs to reduce or eliminate the production of hazardous waste.

Figure 3.69 HAZARDOUS WASTE OPERATIONS

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

Hazardous waste generators are required by law to register with Manitoba Environment. In 1995, there were 2,881 registered waste generators, an increase from 2,678 in 1994. In December 1995, there were more than 100 registered waste transporters, compared with 70 in 1994. By December 1996, that number had dropped to 60.

By December 1995, Manitoba Environment had issued hazardous waste licences or director's orders for 24 companies to handle hazardous waste. By December 1996, that number had increased to 32. Management operations include storage facilities for a variety of hazardous wastes, mobile PCB destruction units and hazardous waste treatment facilities. The department also reviewed and approved eight businesses for on-site treatment of hazardous wastes.

With greater emphasis on revised registration and greater requirements for carriers, the number of waste carriers has been reduced. However, it is hoped the safety and capabilities of the hazardous waste transporters will be increased significantly, reducing the potential for environmental accidents. Hazardous waste management companies have assisted Manitoba Environment in registering waste generators who were unregistered previously.

There appears to be a movement toward niche markets in the hazardous waste management sector. For example, companies are specializing in batteries or waste oil, rather than providing total service for all waste streams. In the future, it is expected that greater emphasis will be placed on product stewardship to reduce the amount of hazardous waste generated.

NUMBER OF HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATORS REGISTERED

The Dangerous Goods Handling and Transportation Act requires that generators of hazardous waste register with Manitoba Environment and provide information about the types and quantities of wastes generated.

Information is provided on a regional basis using Manitoba Environment's administrative boundaries for the regional areas: Winnipeg, Eastern-Interlake, South-Central, Park-West and Northern.

Figure 3.70 HAZARDOUS WASTE REGISTRATIONS

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

The number of registered waste generators has been increasing steadily since 1992, when there were 1,688 in the province. In late 1992, an extensive direct mail campaign informed waste generators of their responsibilities under The Dangerous Goods Handling and Transportation Act. By 1994, the campaign increased the registration of waste generators approximately 60% to 2,678. In 1995, the number of registered generators was increased further to 2,881.

ENVIRONMENTAL ACCIDENTS

By law, accidental spills of dangerous goods or hazardous waste must be reported to Manitoba Environment. The department's emergency response team oversees the cleanup.

The number of reported accidents increased from 212 in 1993 to 396 in 1994, then dropped back to 338 in 1995. As well, there were more calls to the emergency response line, increasing from 368 in 1993 to 534 in 1994, then decreasing to 507 in 1995.

Figure 3.71 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCIDENTS

HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION AND TRANSPORT

Manitoba's hazardous waste legislation requires that shipments of hazardous wastes be accompanied by a uniform shipping document and a hazardous waste manifest. Copies of the manifest must be submitted to Manitoba Environment.

The majority of the waste imported into Manitoba originates from Alberta, Saskatchewan and northwestern Ontario. This waste is shipped primarily to transfer facilities. As a result, the quantities for exports out of Manitoba include much of the material imported into Manitoba.

Shipments of waste lead-acid batteries and battery plates account for a significant portion of the quantities transported into Manitoba (primarily from Alberta and Saskatchewan) and out of Manitoba (primarily to the United States). Shipments of waste oil to the United States also comprise a significant portion of the quantities transported out of Manitoba.

TREND: IMPROVEMENT

Annual increases in quantities transported reflect an increase in generators and wastes added to the tracking system rather than increased quantities of hazardous wastes being generated. This is evident by the number of registration forms received. Increased registration also demonstrates an increase in regulatory compliance. For the most part, waste oil shipments within Manitoba were not manifested during the earlier part of the period shown in Figure 3.72.

Quantities transported within Manitoba do not include shipments of hazardous waste destined for recycling because shipments of recyclable material are exempt from the manifest. Examples of such wastes are lead-acid batteries shipped within Manitoba to collection facilities and waste oil shipped to the Enviro-Oil Research Ltd. facility in Winnipeg for recycling.

Quantities transported within Manitoba include shipments of hazardous wastes between collection facilities as well as shipments directly from generation sites to collection facilities.

Figure 3.72 HAZARDOUS WASTE REGISTRATION AND TRANSPORT, 1991 TO 1995

INDICATOR SUMMARY FOR CHAPTER 3

Go to the Appendix, List of Contributors, or List of Figures, or the Index.